S. E. Ahmed, R. M. Ewers, and M. J. Smith, Large scale spatio-temporal patterns of road development in the Amazon rainforest, Environmental Conservation, vol.44, issue.03, pp.253-264, 2013.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00351.x

S. E. Ahmed, A. C. Lees, N. G. Moura, T. A. Gardner, and J. Barlow, Road networks predict human influence on Amazonian bird communities, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.41, issue.7083, 2014.
DOI : 10.1038/nature04389

S. E. Ahmed, C. M. Souza, J. Riberio, and R. M. Ewers, Temporal patterns of road network development in the Brazilian Amazon, Regional Environmental Change, vol.17, issue.5, pp.927-937, 2013.
DOI : 10.1007/s10113-012-0397-z

J. Albertz and R. Tauch, Mapping from space ? cartographic applications of satellite image data, GeoJournal, vol.47, issue.B9, pp.29-37, 1994.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00806353

P. Allouard, La route forestière en pays tropical (1re partie) Bois et Forêts des Tropiques, pp.15-36, 1954.

P. Allouard, La route forestière en pays tropical (2e partie) Bois et Forêts des Tropiques, pp.29-44, 1954.

L. An and D. G. Brown, Survival Analysis in Land Change Science: Integrating with GIScience to Address Temporal Complexities, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, vol.37, issue.2, pp.323-344, 2008.
DOI : 10.1111/1467-9671.00012

A. Angelsen, Forest cover change in space and time: Combining the von Thünen and forest transition theories, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper, pp.1-43, 2007.
DOI : 10.1596/1813-9450-4117

G. Applegate, F. E. Putz, and L. K. Snook, Who pays for and who benefits from improved timber harvesting practices in the tropics? Lessons learned and information gaps, CIFOR, 2004.

E. Y. Arima, R. T. Walker, M. Sales, C. Souza, and S. G. Perz, The Fragmentation of Space in the Amazon Basin, Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, vol.74, issue.6, pp.699-709, 2008.
DOI : 10.14358/PERS.74.6.699

G. Asner, M. Keller, R. Pereira, and J. Zweede, Remote sensing of selective logging in Amazonia, Remote Sensing of Environment, vol.80, issue.3, pp.483-496, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0034-4257(01)00326-1

G. P. Asner, E. N. Broadbent, P. J. Oliveira, M. Keller, and D. E. Knapp, Condition and fate of logged forests in the Brazilian Amazon, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, pp.12947-50, 2006.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.0604093103

G. P. Asner, M. Keller, J. Pereira, J. C. Zweede, and J. N. Silva, Canopy damage and recovery after selective logging in Amazonia: Field and satellite studies Ecological applications : a publication of the, pp.280-298, 2004.

G. P. Asner, M. Keller, and J. N. Silva, Spatial and temporal dynamics of forest canopy gaps following selective logging in the eastern Amazon, Global Change Biology, vol.83, issue.5, pp.765-783, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/S0378-1127(96)03941-2

G. P. Asner, T. K. Rudel, T. M. Aide, R. Defries, and R. Emerson, A Contemporary Assessment of Change in Humid Tropical Forests, Conservation Biology, vol.13, issue.6, pp.1386-95, 2009.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01333.x

A. Baddeley, I. Bárány, and R. Schneider, Stochastic Geometry: Lectures given at the C, I.M.E. Summer School Lecture Notes in Mathematics / C.I.M.E. Foundation Subseries, 2004.

A. Baddeley and R. Turner, Spatstat: an R package for analyzing spatial point patterns, Journal of statistical software, vol.12, pp.1-42, 2005.

A. J. Baddeley, Spatial sampling and censoring, Stochastic Geometry: Likelihood and Computation, pp.37-78, 1999.

C. P. Barber, M. A. Cochrane, C. M. Souza, and W. F. Laurance, Roads, deforestation, and the mitigating effect of protected areas in the Amazon, Biological Conservation, vol.177, pp.203-209, 2014.
DOI : 10.1016/j.biocon.2014.07.004

N. Bayol, B. Demarquez, C. D. Wasseige, R. Eba, and J. F. Fisher, Forest management and the timber sector in Central Africa In: The Forests of the Congo Basin -State of the Forest, pp.43-61, 2010.

G. Bayon, B. Dennielou, J. Etoubleau, E. Ponzevera, and S. Toucanne, Intensifying Weathering and Land Use in Iron Age Central Africa, Science, vol.335, issue.6073, pp.1219-1222, 2012.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1215400

A. R. Bell, R. L. Riolo, J. M. Doremus, D. G. Brown, and T. P. Lyon, Fragmenting forests: the double edge of effective forest monitoring, Environmental Science & Policy, vol.16, pp.20-30, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.envsci.2011.11.005

A. Benítez-lópez, R. Alkemade, and P. A. Verweij, The impacts of roads and other infrastructure on mammal and bird populations: A meta-analysis, Biological Conservation, vol.143, issue.6, pp.1307-1316, 2010.
DOI : 10.1016/j.biocon.2010.02.009

J. E. Bicknell, D. L. Gaveau, Z. G. Davis, and M. J. Struebig, Saving logged tropical forests: closing roads will bring immediate benefits, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, vol.13, issue.2, pp.73-74, 2015.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99102.x

R. Bivand and N. Lewin-koh, maptools: Tools for reading and handling spatial objects. R package version 0, pp.8-30, 2014.

A. Blackman and J. Rivera, Producer-Level Benefits of Sustainability Certification, Conservation Biology, vol.9, issue.6, pp.1176-85, 2011.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2011.01774.x

S. Blake, S. L. Deem, S. Strindberg, F. Maisels, and L. Momont, Roadless Wilderness Area Determines Forest Elephant Movements in the Congo Basin, PLoS ONE, vol.39, issue.10, p.3546, 2008.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0003546.s012

J. Blaser, A. Sarre, D. Poore, and S. Johnson, Status of tropical forest management 2011. Itto techn edn International Tropical Timber Organization, 2011.

C. Bonneuil and M. Kleiche, Du jardin d'essais colonial à la station expérimentale 1880-1930, Elements pour une histoire du CIRAD. CIRAD, 1993.

Y. Boulvert, Etude geomorphologique de la Republique Centrafricaine: carte a 1, 1996.

L. Bourbier, G. Cornu, A. Pennec, C. Brognoli, and V. Gond, Large-scale estimation of forest canopy opening using remote sensing in Central Africa, pp.3-9, 2013.

I. A. Bowles, R. E. Rice, R. A. Mittermeier, and G. A. Da-fonseca, ENVIRONMENT: Logging and Tropical Forest Conservation, Science, vol.280, issue.5371, pp.1899-1900, 1998.
DOI : 10.1126/science.280.5371.1899

A. O. Brandão and C. M. Souza, Mapping unofficial roads with Landsat images: a new tool to improve the monitoring of the Brazilian Amazon rainforest, International Journal of Remote Sensing, vol.5524, issue.1, pp.177-189, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/0378-1127(94)03432-V

J. S. Brandt, C. Nolte, and A. Agrawal, Deforestation and timber production in Congo after implementation of sustainable forest management policy, Land Use Policy, vol.52, pp.15-22, 2016.
DOI : 10.1016/j.landusepol.2015.11.028

J. S. Brandt, C. Nolte, J. Steinberg, and A. Agrawal, Foreign capital, forest change and regulatory compliance in Congo Basin forests, Environmental Research Letters, vol.9, issue.4, p.44007, 2014.
DOI : 10.1088/1748-9326/9/4/044007

A. Brew-hammond, Energy access in Africa: Challenges ahead, Energy Policy, vol.38, issue.5, pp.2291-2301, 2010.
DOI : 10.1016/j.enpol.2009.12.016

G. Briant, V. Gond, and S. G. Laurance, Habitat fragmentation and the desiccation of forest canopies: A case study from eastern Amazonia, Biological Conservation, vol.143, issue.11, pp.2763-2769, 2010.
DOI : 10.1016/j.biocon.2010.07.024

T. M. Brncic, K. J. Willis, D. J. Harris, M. W. Telfer, and R. M. Bailey, Fire and climate change impacts on lowland forest composition in northern Congo during the last 2580 years from palaeoecological analyses of a seasonally flooded swamp. The Holocene, pp.79-89, 2009.

L. Bruijnzeel, Hydrological functions of tropical forests: not seeing the soil for the trees?, Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, vol.104, issue.1, pp.185-228, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/j.agee.2004.01.015

K. P. Burnham and D. R. Anderson, Model selection and multimodel inference: a practical information-theoretic approach, 2002.
DOI : 10.1007/b97636

J. Busch and K. Ferretti-gallon, Stopping Deforestation: What Works and What Doesn't. Center for Global Development, 2014.

P. Buys, U. Deichmann, and D. Wheeler, Road network upgrading and overland trade expansion in sub-Saharan Africa. Policy Research Working Paper WPS 4097, 2006.

P. Cerutti, R. Nasi, and L. Tacconi, Sustainable Forest Management in Cameroon Needs More than Approved Forest Management Plans, Ecology and Society, vol.13, issue.2, 2008.
DOI : 10.5751/ES-02591-130236

P. O. Cerutti, L. Tacconi, R. Nasi, and G. Lescuyer, Legal vs. certified timber: Preliminary impacts of forest certification in Cameroon, Forest Policy and Economics, vol.13, issue.3, pp.184-190, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.forpol.2010.11.005

S. Chao, Forest peoples: Numbers across the world. Forest Peoples Programme , Moreton-in-Marsh, 2012.

J. Chave, M. Réjou-méchain, A. Búrquez, E. Chidumayo, and M. S. Colgan, Improved allometric models to estimate the aboveground biomass of tropical trees, Global Change Biology, vol.97, issue.10, pp.3177-3190, 2014.
DOI : 10.1111/gcb.12629

R. Chazdon, C. Harvey, O. Komar, D. Griffith, and B. Ferguson, Beyond Reserves: A Research Agenda for Conserving Biodiversity in Human-modified Tropical Landscapes, Biotropica, vol.38, issue.2, pp.142-153, 2009.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1744-7429.2008.00471.x

R. L. Chazdon, Tropical forest recovery: legacies of human impact and natural disturbances, Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, vol.6, issue.1-2, pp.51-71, 2003.
DOI : 10.1078/1433-8319-00042

R. L. Chazdon, Second growth: The promise of tropical forest regeneration in an age of deforestation, 2014.
DOI : 10.7208/chicago/9780226118109.001.0001

J. Chen, X. Zhu, J. E. Vogelmann, F. Gao, and S. Jin, A simple and effective method for filling gaps in Landsat ETM+ SLC-off images, Remote Sensing of Environment, vol.115, issue.4, pp.1053-1064, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.rse.2010.12.010

K. M. Chomitz and D. Gray, Roads, Land Use, and Deforestation: A Spatial Model Applied to Belize, The World Bank Economic Review, vol.10, issue.3, pp.487-512, 1996.
DOI : 10.1093/wber/10.3.487
URL : http://wber.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/short/10/3/487

C. J. Clark, J. R. Poulsen, R. Malonga, and P. W. Elkan, Logging Concessions Can Extend the Conservation Estate for Central African Tropical Forests, Conservation Biology, vol.38, issue.5, pp.1281-93, 2009.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01243.x

M. Clarke and R. Walsh, Long-term erosion and surface roughness change of rain-forest terrain following selective logging, pp.109-123, 2006.

G. R. Clements, A. J. Lynam, D. Gaveau, W. L. Yap, and S. Lhota, Where and How Are Roads Endangering Mammals in Southeast Asia's Forests?, PLoS ONE, vol.22, issue.35, p.115376, 2014.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0115376.s011

A. W. Coffin, From roadkill to road ecology: A review of the ecological effects of roads, Journal of Transport Geography, vol.15, issue.5, pp.396-406, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2006.11.006

N. M. Connolly and R. G. Pearson, The effect of fine sedimentation on tropical stream macroinvertebrate assemblages: a comparison using flow-through artificial stream channels and recirculating mesocosms, Hydrobiologia, vol.18, issue.1, pp.423-438, 2007.
DOI : 10.1007/s10750-007-0774-7

M. Crawley, Statistics: An introduction using R, 2005.
DOI : 10.1002/9781119941750

M. R. Crist, B. O. Wilmer, and G. H. Aplet, Assessing the value of roadless areas in a conservation reserve strategy: biodiversity and landscape connectivity in the northern Rockies, Journal of Applied Ecology, vol.5, issue.1, pp.181-191, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/0169-5347(89)90108-0

T. Crk, M. Uriarte, F. Corsi, and D. Flynn, Forest recovery in a tropical landscape: what is the relative importance of biophysical, socioeconomic, and landscape variables?, Landscape Ecology, vol.19, issue.2, pp.629-642, 2009.
DOI : 10.1007/s10980-009-9338-8

M. Cropper, C. Griffiths, and M. Mani, Roads, population pressure, and deforestation in Thailand, Land Economics, vol.75, pp.1976-89, 1999.

P. F. Develey and P. C. Stouffer, Effects of Roads on Movements by Understory Birds in Mixed-Species Flocks in Central Amazonian Brazil, Conservation Biology, vol.112, issue.5, pp.1416-1422, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/0006-3207(80)90006-3

R. Develice and J. Martin, ASSESSING THE EXTENT TO WHICH ROADLESS AREAS COMPLEMENT THE CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY, Ecological Applications, vol.11, issue.4, pp.1008-1018, 2001.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1469-185X.1967.tb01419.x

O. Dewitte, A. Jones, O. Spaargaren, H. Breuning-madsen, and M. Brossard, Harmonisation of the soil map of Africa at the continental scale, Geoderma, vol.211, issue.212, pp.211-212, 2013.
DOI : 10.1016/j.geoderma.2013.07.007

P. M. Donagh, L. Rivero, J. Garibaldi, M. Alvez, and P. Cortez, Effects of selective harvesting on traffic pattern and soil compaction in a subtropical forest in Guarani, Scientia Forestalis, vol.2472, pp.115-124, 2010.

J. Doucet, Comment assister la régénération naturelle de l'okoumé dans les concessions forestières ? Bois et Forêts des Tropiques, pp.59-72, 2004.

I. A. Douglas, Predicting road erosion rates in selectively logged tropical rain forests In: Erosion Prediction in Ungauged Basins: Integrating Methods and Techniques, pp.199-205, 2003.

J. Dulac, Global Land Transport Infrastructure Requirements: Estimating road and railway infrastructure capacity and costs to 2050, 2013.

L. Durrieu-de-madron, S. Bauwens, A. Giraud, D. Hubert, and A. Billand, Estimation de l'impact de différents modes d'exploitation forestière sur les stocks de carbone en Afrique centrale, pp.75-86, 2011.

L. Durrieu-de-madron, B. Fontez, and B. Dipapoundji, Dégâts d'exploitation et de débardage en fonction de l'intensité d'exploitation en forêt dense humide d'Afrique Centrale, pp.57-60, 2000.

D. P. Dykstra and R. Heinrich, FAO model code of forest harvesting practice, 1996.

D. P. Edwards, J. J. Gilroy, P. Woodcock, F. A. Edwards, and T. H. Larsen, Land-sharing versus land-sparing logging: reconciling timber extraction with biodiversity conservation, Global Change Biology, vol.366, issue.1, pp.183-91, 2014.
DOI : 10.1111/gcb.12353

D. P. Edwards, T. H. Larsen, T. D. Docherty, F. Ansell, and W. W. Hsu, Degraded lands worth protecting: the biological importance of Southeast Asia's repeatedly logged forests, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.21, issue.4, pp.82-90, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/S0169-5347(00)01838-3

D. P. Edwards and W. F. Laurance, Biodiversity Despite Selective Logging, Science, vol.339, issue.6120, pp.646-647, 2013.
DOI : 10.1126/science.339.6120.646-b

D. P. Edwards, J. Tobias, D. Sheil, E. Meijaard, and W. F. Laurance, Maintaining ecosystem function and services in logged tropical forests, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol.29, issue.9, pp.511-520, 2014.
DOI : 10.1016/j.tree.2014.07.003

R. Ernst, S. Böhm, M. Hölting, and T. Konrad, Whipped cream cravings in the rainforest: predation of foam nests of Physalaemus ephippifer (Anura: Leptodactylidae) by Platemys platycephala (Testudines: Chelidae) in central Guyana, Salamandra, vol.50, pp.57-62, 2014.

J. Estève, La destruction du couvert forestier consécutive à l'exploitation forestière de bois d'ouvre en forêt dense tropicale humide africaine ou américaine, Bois et Forêts des Tropiques, vol.201, pp.77-84, 1983.

J. Esteve and C. Lepitre, Construction et coût des routes forestières en forêt dense tropicale, Bois et Forêts des Tropiques, vol.145, pp.49-74, 1972.

D. Ezzine-de-blas and M. Ruiz-pérez, Prospects for Reduced Impact Logging in Central African logging concessions, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.256, issue.7, pp.1509-1516, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.foreco.2008.05.016

F. Atibt, Infrastructures routières dans les forêts tropicales : voies de développement ou voies de destruction ? Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 1999.

A. Fayolle, B. Engelbrecht, V. Freycon, F. Mortier, and M. Swaine, Geological Substrates Shape Tree Species and Trait Distributions in African Moist Forests, PLoS ONE, vol.7, issue.8, p.42381, 2012.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0042381.s002

A. Fayolle, M. D. Swaine, J. F. Bastin, N. Bourland, and J. Comiskey, Patterns of tree species composition across tropical African forests, Journal of Biogeography, vol.38, issue.12, pp.2320-2331, 2014.
DOI : 10.1111/jbi.12382

P. M. Fearnside, Brazil???s Cuiab??- Santar??m (BR-163) Highway: The Environmental Cost of Paving a Soybean Corridor Through the Amazon, Environmental Management, vol.form, issue.54, pp.601-614, 2007.
DOI : 10.1007/s00267-006-0149-2

T. R. Feldpausch, S. M. Jirka, C. Passos, F. Jasper, and S. J. Riha, When big trees fall: Damage and carbon export by reduced impact logging in southern Amazonia, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.219, issue.2-3, pp.199-215, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.foreco.2005.09.003

K. Ferretti-gallon and J. Busch, What Drives Deforestation and What Stops it? A Meta-Analysis of Spatially Explicit Econometric Studies, CGD Working paper 361. Center for Global Development, 2014.
DOI : 10.2139/ssrn.2458040

B. Finegan, Forest succession, Nature, vol.43, issue.5990, pp.109-114, 1984.
DOI : 10.1086/283696

B. Finegan, Pattern and process in neotropical secondary rain forests: the first 100 years of succession. Trends in ecology & evolution, pp.119-143, 1996.

C. Folke, S. Carpenter, B. Walker, M. Scheffer, and T. Elmqvist, Regime Shifts, Resilience, and Biodiversity in Ecosystem Management, Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, vol.35, issue.1, pp.557-581, 2004.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.021103.105711

R. Foxall and A. Baddeley, Nonparametric measures of association between a spatial point process and a random set, with geological applications, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series C (Applied Statistics), vol.116, issue.2, pp.165-182, 2002.
DOI : 10.1002/(SICI)1521-4036(199809)40:5<521::AID-BIMJ521>3.0.CO;2-R

B. Fraser, Deforestation: Carving up the Amazon, Nature, vol.509, issue.7501, pp.418-419, 2014.
DOI : 10.1038/509418a

T. S. Fredericksen and B. Mostacedo, Regeneration of timber species following selection logging in a Bolivian tropical dry forest, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.131, issue.1-3, pp.47-55, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S0378-1127(99)00199-1

T. S. Fredericksen and F. E. Putz, Silvicultural intensification for tropical forest conservation, Biodiversity and Conservation, vol.12, issue.7, pp.1445-1453, 2003.
DOI : 10.1023/A:1023673625940

R. Fyumagwa, E. Gereta, S. Hassan, J. R. Kideghesho, and E. M. Kohi, Roads as a Threat to the Serengeti Ecosystem, Conservation Biology, vol.43, issue.5, pp.1122-1125, 2013.
DOI : 10.1111/cobi.12116

D. L. Gaveau, M. Kshatriya, D. Sheil, S. Sloan, and E. Molidena, Reconciling Forest Conservation and Logging in Indonesian Borneo, PLoS ONE, vol.35, issue.8, p.69887, 2013.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0069887.s001

D. L. Gaveau, S. Sloan, E. Molidena, H. Yaen, and D. Sheil, Four Decades of Forest Persistence, Clearance and Logging on Borneo, PLoS ONE, vol.8, issue.7, p.101654, 2014.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0101654.s001

J. Gazel, Carte geologique 1:1 000 000 du Cameroun, 1956.

A. Gelfand, P. Diggle, P. Guttorp, and M. Fuentes, Handbook of spatial statistics, 2010.

B. S. Van-gemerden, H. Olff, M. P. Parren, and F. Bongers, The pristine rain forest? Remnants of historical human impacts on current tree species composition and diversity, Journal of Biogeography, vol.20, issue.9, pp.1381-1390, 2003.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-2699.2003.00937.x

G. Neba, S. Kanninen, M. Eba-'a-atyi, R. Sonwa, and D. J. , Assessment and prediction of above-ground biomass in selectively logged forest concessions using field measurements and remote sensing data: Case study in South East Cameroon. Forest Ecology and Management, pp.177-185, 2014.

A. N. Gillison and K. R. Brewer, The use of gradient directed transects or gradsects in natural resource surveys, Journal of Environmental Management, vol.20, pp.103-127, 1985.

S. J. Goetz, M. Hansen, R. A. Houghton, W. Walker, and N. Laporte, Measurement and monitoring needs, capabilities and potential for addressing reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation under REDD+, Environmental Research Letters, vol.10, issue.12, 2015.
DOI : 10.1088/1748-9326/10/12/123001

T. Gomi, R. C. Sidle, S. Noguchi, J. N. Negishi, and A. R. Nik, Sediment and wood accumulations in humid tropical headwater streams: Effects of logging and riparian buffers. Forest Ecology and Management, pp.166-175, 2006.

V. Gond, A. Fayolle, A. Pennec, G. Cornu, and P. Mayaux, Vegetation structure and greenness in Central Africa from Modis multi-temporal data, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.75, issue.1, 2013.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1221820
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00926975

V. Gond, C. Féau, and M. Pain-orcet, Télédétection et aménagement forestier tropical: les pistes d'exploitation, Bois et Forêts des Tropiques, vol.275, pp.29-36, 2003.

M. Goosem, Fragmentation impacts caused by roads through rainforests, Current Science, vol.93, pp.1587-1595, 2007.

S. Gourlet-fleury, D. Beina, A. Fayolle, D. Y. Ouédraogo, and F. Mortier, Silvicultural disturbance has little impact on tree species diversity in a Central African moist forest. Forest Ecology and Management, pp.322-332, 2013.

S. Gourlet-fleury, V. Rossi, M. Rejou-mechain, V. Freycon, and A. Fayolle, Environmental filtering of dense-wooded species controls above-ground biomass stored in African moist forests, Journal of Ecology, vol.48, issue.4, pp.981-990, 2011.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-2745.2011.01829.x

M. R. Guariguata and J. M. Dupuy, Forest Regeneration in Abandoned Logging Roads in Lowland Costa Rica1, Biotropica, vol.17, issue.1, pp.15-28, 1997.
DOI : 10.1016/0378-1127(92)90099-U

M. R. Guariguata and R. Ostertag, Neotropical secondary forest succession: changes in structural and functional characteristics, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.148, issue.1-3, pp.185-206, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/S0378-1127(00)00535-1

R. E. Gullison and J. J. Hardner, The effects of road design and harvest intensity on forest damage caused by selective logging: empirical results and a simulation model from the Bosque Chimanes, Bolivia, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.59, issue.1-2, pp.1-14, 1993.
DOI : 10.1016/0378-1127(93)90067-W

T. Gullison, M. Melnyk, and C. Wong, Logging Off. Mechanisms to Stop or Prevent Industrial Logging in Forests of High Conservation Value, 2001.

J. S. Hall, V. Medjibe, G. P. Berlyn, and P. S. Ashton, Seedling growth of three co-occurring Entandrophragma species (Meliaceae) under simulated light environments: implications for forest management in central Africa, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.179, issue.1-3, pp.135-144, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0378-1127(02)00488-7

G. S. Hartshorn, Application of Gap Theory to Tropical Forest Management: Natural Regeneration on Strip Clear-cuts in the Peruvian Amazon, Ecology, vol.70, issue.3, pp.567-576, 1989.
DOI : 10.2307/1940208

B. Haurez, C. A. Petre, C. Vermeulen, N. Tagg, and J. L. Doucet, Western lowland gorilla density and nesting behavior in a Gabonese forest logged for 25??years: implications for gorilla conservation, Biodiversity and Conservation, vol.6, issue.11, pp.2669-2687, 2014.
DOI : 10.1007/s10531-014-0743-1

W. Hawthorne, Ecological profiles of Ghanaian forest trees, 1995.

W. Hawthorne, D. Sheil, V. Agyeman, A. Juam, M. Marshall et al., Logging scars in Ghanaian high forest: Towards improved models for sustainable production, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.271, pp.27-36, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.foreco.2012.01.036

J. R. Healey, C. Price, and J. Tay, The cost of carbon retention by reduced impact logging, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.139, issue.1-3, pp.237-255, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S0378-1127(00)00385-6

M. Herold, R. M. Román-cuesta, Y. Hirata, P. V. Laake, and G. Asner, A review of methods to measure and monitor historical forest degradation, pp.16-24, 2011.

R. J. Hijmans, S. E. Cameron, J. L. Parra, P. G. Jones, and A. Jarvis, Very high resolution interpolated climate surfaces for global land areas, International Journal of Climatology, vol.18, issue.15, pp.1965-1978, 2005.
DOI : 10.1002/joc.1276

M. Hirschmugl, M. Steinegger, H. Gallaun, and M. Schardt, Mapping Forest Degradation due to Selective Logging by Means of Time Series Analysis: Case Studies in Central Africa, Remote Sensing, vol.6, issue.1, pp.756-775, 2014.
DOI : 10.3390/rs6010756

C. V. Hoeven, Roadside conditions as predictor for wildlife crossing probability in a Central African rainforest, African Journal of Ecology, vol.14, issue.2, pp.368-377, 2010.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01122.x

S. Holm, A Simple Sequentially Rejective Multiple Test Procedure, Scandinavian Journal of Statistics, vol.6, pp.65-70, 1979.

T. P. Holmes, G. M. Blate, J. C. Zweede, R. Pereira, and P. Barreto, Financial and ecological indicators of reduced impact logging performance in the eastern Amazon, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.163, issue.1-3, pp.93-110, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0378-1127(01)00530-8

T. P. Holmes, G. M. Blate, J. C. Zweede, R. Pereira-junior, and P. Barreto, Custos e benefícios financeiros da exploração florestal de impacto reduzido em comparação à exploração florestal convencional na Amazônia oriental, Fundação Floresta Tropical, 2002.

Y. Honu and Q. Dang, Spatial distribution and species composition of tree seeds and seedlings under the canopy of the shrub, Chromolaena odorata Linn., in Ghana, Ghana. Forest Ecology and Management, pp.185-196, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0378-1127(01)00593-X

T. Hosaka, M. Niino, M. Kon, T. Ochi, and T. Yamada, Effects of logging road networks on the ecological functions of dung beetles in Peninsular Malaysia, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.326, pp.18-24, 2014.
DOI : 10.1016/j.foreco.2014.04.004

J. Illian, A. Penttinen, H. Stoyan, and D. Stoyan, Statistical Analysis and Modelling of Spatial Point Patterns, 2008.
DOI : 10.1002/9780470725160

J. Jaeger, Landscape division, splitting index, and effective mesh size: New measures of landscape fragmentation, Landscape Ecology, vol.15, issue.2, pp.115-130, 2000.
DOI : 10.1023/A:1008129329289

S. B. Jennings, N. D. Brown, and D. Sheil, Assessing forest canopies and understorey illumination: canopy closure, canopy cover and other measures, Forestry, vol.72, issue.1, pp.59-73, 1999.
DOI : 10.1093/forestry/72.1.59

J. S. Johns, P. Barreto, and C. Uhl, Logging damage during planned and unplanned logging operations in the eastern Amazon, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.89, issue.1-3, pp.59-77, 1996.
DOI : 10.1016/S0378-1127(96)03869-8

A. Jones, H. Breuning-madsen, M. Brossard, A. Dampha, and J. Deckers, Soil Atlas of Africa, 2013.

. Karsenty, N. Bayol, P. Cerutti, D. E. De-blas, and E. Forni, The 2008-2009 timber sector crisis in Africa and some lessons for the forest taxation regime, International Forestry Review, vol.12, issue.2, pp.172-176, 2010.
DOI : 10.1505/ifor.12.2.172

A. Karsenty, I. Drigo, M. Piketty, and B. Singer, Regulating industrial forest concessions in Central Africa and South America, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.256, issue.7, pp.1498-1508, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.foreco.2008.07.001

A. Karsenty and S. Gourlet-fleury, Assessing Sustainability of Logging Practices in the Congo Basin's Managed Forests: the Issue of Commercial Species Recovery, Ecology and Society, vol.11, issue.1, p.26, 2006.
DOI : 10.5751/ES-01668-110126

D. Kleinbaum, Survival Analysis: A self learning text, 2012.

F. Kleinschroth, S. Gourlet-fleury, P. Sist, F. Mortier, and J. R. Healey, Legacy of logging roads in the Congo Basin: How persistent are the scars in forest cover?, Ecosphere, vol.6, issue.4, p.64, 2015.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99102.x

F. Kleinschroth, J. Healey, and S. Gourlet-fleury, Sparing forests in Central Africa: re-use old logging roads to avoid creating new ones, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, vol.14, issue.1, pp.9-10, 2016.
DOI : 10.1002/FEEKleinscrothletter.1

F. Kleinschroth, J. R. Healey, P. Sist, F. Mortier, and S. Gourlet-fleury, How persistent are the impacts of logging roads on Central African forest vegetation?, Journal of Applied Ecology, vol.1, issue.4, pp.1127-1137, 2016.
DOI : 10.1111/1365-2664.12661

F. Kleinschroth, C. Schöning, J. B. Kung-'u, I. Kowarik, and A. Cierjacks, Regeneration of the East African timber tree Ocotea usambarensis in relation to historical logging, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.291, pp.396-403, 2013.
DOI : 10.1016/j.foreco.2012.11.021

S. Krzeszkiewicz, Quelques observations sur l'organisation de l'exploitation forestière en pays tropical, Bois et Forêts des Tropiques, vol.66, pp.29-40, 1959.

N. Kunert, L. M. Aparecido, N. Higuchi, J. Dos-santos, and S. Trumbore, Higher tree transpiration due to road-associated edge effects in a tropical moist lowland forest Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, pp.183-192, 2015.

L. Laestadius, S. Maginnis, S. Minnemeyer, P. Potapov, and C. Saint-laurent, Mapping opportunities for forest landscape restoration, pp.47-48, 2011.

N. T. Laporte, J. A. Stabach, R. Grosch, T. S. Lin, and S. J. Goetz, Expansion of Industrial Logging in Central Africa, Science, vol.316, issue.5830, pp.316-1451, 2007.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1141057

S. G. Laurance and M. S. Gomez, Clearing Width and Movements of Understory Rainforest Birds1, Biotropica, vol.6, issue.1, pp.149-152, 2005.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1744-7429.2005.04099.x

W. Laurance and D. Edwards, Saving logged tropical forests, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, vol.12, issue.3, p.147, 2014.
DOI : 10.1890/1540-9295-12.3.147

W. F. Laurance, Cut and run: the dramatic rise of transnational logging in the tropics, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol.15, issue.11, pp.433-434, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S0169-5347(00)01962-5

W. F. Laurance, Rainforest fragmentation kills big trees, Nature, vol.404, 2000.

W. F. Laurance, Wildlife struggle in an increasingly noisy world: Fig. 1., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.112, issue.39, pp.11995-11996, 2015.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.1516050112

W. F. Laurance and A. Balmford, Land use: A global map for road building, Nature, vol.18, issue.7441, pp.308-309, 2013.
DOI : 10.1038/495308a

W. F. Laurance, G. R. Clements, S. Sloan, C. S. O-'connell, and N. D. Mueller, A global strategy for road building, Nature, vol.279, issue.7517, pp.229-232, 2014.
DOI : 10.1038/nature13717

W. F. Laurance, B. M. Croes, L. Tchignoumba, S. Lahm, and A. Alonso, Impacts of Roads and Hunting on Central African Rainforest Mammals, Conservation Biology, vol.6, issue.1, pp.1251-1261, 2006.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00420.x

W. F. Laurance, M. Goosem, and S. G. Laurance, Impacts of roads and linear clearings on tropical forests, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol.24, issue.12, pp.659-69, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.tree.2009.06.009

W. F. Laurance, T. E. Lovejoy, H. L. Vasconcelos, E. Bruna, and R. K. Didham, Ecosystem Decay of Amazonian Forest Fragments: a 22-Year Investigation, Conservation Biology, vol.13, issue.3, pp.605-618, 2002.
DOI : 10.1126/science.280.5372.2126

W. F. Laurance, A. Peletier-jellema, B. Geenen, H. Koster, and P. Verweij, Reducing the global environmental impacts of rapid infrastructure expansion, Current Biology, vol.25, issue.7, pp.1-5, 2015.
DOI : 10.1016/j.cub.2015.02.050

W. F. Laurance, S. Sloan, L. Weng, and J. A. Sayer, Estimating the Environmental Costs of Africa???s Massive ???Development Corridors???, Current Biology, vol.25, issue.24, pp.1-7, 2015.
DOI : 10.1016/j.cub.2015.10.046

W. F. Laurance, S. Sloan, L. Weng, J. A. Sayer, and W. F. Laurance, Estimating the Environmental Costs of Africa ' s Massive " Development Corridors " Report Estimating the Environmental Costs of Africa ' s Massive " Development Corridors, Current Biology, vol.25, pp.1-7, 2015.

W. F. Laurance and D. C. Useche, Environmental Synergisms and Extinctions of Tropical Species, Conservation Biology, vol.68, issue.6, pp.1427-1464, 2009.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01336.x

L. Ray and J. , Les routes forestières de la Société Nationale du Cameroun, Bois et Forêts des Tropiques, vol.50, pp.35-48, 1956.

L. Ray and J. , Le retour à vide des grumiers, Bois et Forêts des Tropiques, vol.59, pp.37-42, 1958.

L. Ray and J. , Le tracé des routes d'exploitation forestière, Bois et Forêts des Tropiques, vol.63, pp.25-47, 1959.

L. Ray and J. , L'entretien courant des routes en terre et la lutte contre la tôle ondulée, Bois et Forêts des Tropiques, vol.70, pp.49-56, 1960.

A. C. Lees and C. A. Peres, Gap-crossing movements predict species occupancy in Amazonian forest fragments, Oikos, vol.78, issue.2, pp.280-290, 2009.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1600-0706.2008.16842.x

B. Lehner, K. Verdin, and A. Jarvis, HydroSHEDS Technical Documentation, World Wildlife Fund, 2006.

G. Lescuyer, M. N. Mvongo-nkene, G. Monville, M. B. Elanga-voundi, and T. Kakundika, Promoting Multiple-use Forest Management: Which trade-offs in the timber concessions of Central Africa? Forest Ecology and Management, pp.20-28, 2015.

S. L. Lewis, D. P. Edwards, and D. Galbraith, Increasing human dominance of tropical forests, Science, vol.349, issue.6250, pp.19-73, 2015.
DOI : 10.1126/science.aaa9932

S. L. Lewis, G. Lopez-gonzalez, B. Sonké, K. Affum-baffoe, and T. R. Baker, Increasing carbon storage in intact African tropical forests, Nature, vol.88, issue.7232, pp.1003-1009, 2009.
DOI : 10.1038/nature07771
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00364821

S. L. Lewis, B. Sonké, T. Sunderland, S. K. Begne, and G. Lopez-gonzalez, Above-ground biomass and structure of 260 African tropical forests, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.359, issue.1443, 2013.
DOI : 10.1098/rstb.2003.1438

M. Lieshout and A. Baddeley, A nonparametric measure of spatial interaction in point patterns, Statistica Neerlandica, vol.52, issue.3, pp.344-361, 1996.
DOI : 10.1080/02331888608801956

M. Von-der-lippe and I. Kowarik, Long-Distance Dispersal of Plants by Vehicles as a Driver of Plant Invasions, Conservation Biology, vol.10, issue.4, pp.986-996, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.baae.2005.04.003

X. Liu, The Cox Proportional Hazard Regression Model and Advances, pp.144-200, 2012.
DOI : 10.1002/9781118307656.ch5

&. Macdonald and . Macdonald, HabitApp. [Online] Available at: http://www.scrufster.com/habitapp, 2016.

A. E. Magurran, Measuring biological diversity, 2004.

J. R. Malcolm and J. C. Ray, Influence of Timber Extraction Routes on Central African Small-Mammal Communities, Forest Structure, and Tree Diversity, Conservation Biology, vol.10, issue.6, pp.1623-1638, 2000.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1523-1739.1992.06040570.x

J. Maley, A Catastrophic Destruction of African Forests about 2,500 Years Ago Still Exerts a Major Influence on Present Vegetation Formations, IDS Bulletin, vol.33, issue.1, pp.13-30, 2002.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1759-5436.2002.tb00003.x

Y. Malhi, T. Gardner, G. R. Goldsmith, M. R. Silman, and P. Zelazowski, Tropical Forests in the Anthropocene, Annual Review of Environment and Resources, vol.39, issue.1, pp.125-159, 2014.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev-environ-030713-155141

A. Malmer and H. Grip, Soil disturbance and loss of infiltrability caused by mechanized and manual extraction of tropical rainforest in Sabah, Malaysia, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.38, issue.1-2, pp.1-12, 1990.
DOI : 10.1016/0378-1127(90)90081-L

L. Mandle, H. Tallis, L. Sotomayor, and A. L. Vogl, Who loses? Tracking ecosystem service redistribution from road development and mitigation in the Peruvian Amazon, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, vol.28, issue.6, pp.309-315, 2015.
DOI : 10.1890/110292

D. J. Mason and F. E. Putz, Reducing the impacts of tropical forestry on wildlife. Biology and resource management in the tropics series, 2001.

A. Matthews and A. Matthews, Survey of gorillas ( Gorilla gorilla gorilla ) and chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes troglodytes ) in Southwestern Cameroon, Primates, vol.45, issue.1, pp.15-24, 2004.
DOI : 10.1007/s10329-003-0058-4

P. Mayaux, V. Gond, M. Massart, M. Pain-orcet, and F. Achard, Évolution du couvert forestier du bassin du Congo mesurée par télédétection spatiale, pp.45-52, 2003.

V. P. Medjibe and F. E. Putz, Cost comparisons of reduced-impact and conventional logging in the tropics, Journal of Forest Economics, vol.18, issue.3, pp.242-256, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jfe.2012.05.001

B. Mercer, Tropical forests: A review, April. International Sustainability Unit, 2015.

B. Mertens, E. Forni, and E. Lambin, Prediction of the impact of logging activities on forest cover: A case-study in the East province of Cameroon, Journal of Environmental Management, vol.62, issue.1, pp.21-36, 2001.
DOI : 10.1006/jema.2001.0417

B. Mertens and E. F. Lambin, Land-Cover-Change Trajectories in Southern Cameroon, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, vol.90, issue.3, pp.467-494, 2000.
DOI : 10.1111/0004-5608.00205

J. Nabe-nielsen, W. Severiche, T. Fredericksen, and L. Nabe-nielsen, Timber tree regeneration along abandoned logging roads in a tropical Bolivian forest, New Forests, vol.14, issue.2, pp.31-40, 2007.
DOI : 10.1007/s11056-006-9035-2

R. Nasi, A. Billand, and N. Van-vliet, Managing for timber and biodiversity in the Congo Basin, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.268, pp.103-111, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.foreco.2011.04.005

R. Nasi, D. Brown, D. Wilkie, E. Bennett, and C. Tutin, Conservation and use of wildlife-based resources: the bushmeat crisis, 2008.

J. N. Negishi, R. C. Sidle, A. D. Ziegler, S. Noguchi, and A. R. Nik, Contribution of intercepted subsurface flow to road runoff and sediment transport in a logging???disturbed tropical catchment, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, pp.1174-1191, 2008.
DOI : 10.1029/2002WR001744

D. Nepstad, G. Carvalho, A. C. Barros, A. Alencar, and J. P. Capobianco, Road paving, fire regime feedbacks, and the future of Amazon forests. Forest Ecology and Management, pp.395-407, 2001.

M. E. Newman, K. P. Mclaren, and B. S. Wilson, Assessing deforestation and fragmentation in a tropical moist forest over 68 years; the impact of roads and legal protection in the Cockpit Country, Jamaica, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.315, pp.138-152, 2014.
DOI : 10.1016/j.foreco.2013.12.033

N. Norden, R. L. Chazdon, A. Chao, Y. H. Jiang, and B. Vílchez-alvarado, Resilience of tropical rain forests: tree community reassembly in secondary forests, Ecology Letters, vol.38, issue.Suppl., pp.385-394, 2009.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01292.x

K. Obidzinski, A. Andrianto, and C. Wijaya, Cross-border timber trade in Indonesia: critical or overstated problem? Forest governance lessons from Kalimantan, International Forestry Review, vol.9, issue.1, pp.526-535, 2007.
DOI : 10.1505/ifor.9.1.526

L. P. Olander, F. Scatena, and W. L. Silver, Impacts of disturbance initiated by road construction in a subtropical cloud forest in the Luquillo Experimental Forest, Puerto Rico, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.109, issue.1-3, pp.33-49, 1998.
DOI : 10.1016/S0378-1127(98)00261-8

M. Padmanaba and D. Sheil, via Logging Roads in Borneo, Tropical Conservation Science, vol.4, issue.2, pp.35-44, 2014.
DOI : 10.1177/194008291400700108

V. T. Parker, L. M. Schile, M. C. Vasey, and J. C. Callaway, Efficiency in assessment and monitoring methods: scaling down gradient-directed transects, Ecosphere, vol.2, issue.9, pp.1-11, 2011.
DOI : 10.1007/s100219900055

R. Pereira, J. Zweede, G. P. Asner, and M. Keller, Forest canopy damage and recovery in reduced-impact and conventional selective logging in eastern Para, Brazil, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.168, issue.1-3, pp.77-89, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0378-1127(01)00732-0

C. A. Peres, J. Barlow, and W. F. Laurance, Detecting anthropogenic disturbance in tropical forests. Trends in ecology & evolution, pp.227-229, 2006.

G. Petrokofsky, P. Sist, L. Blanc, J. L. Doucet, and B. Finegan, Comparative effectiveness of silvicultural interventions for increasing timber production and sustaining conservation values in natural tropical production forests. A systematic review protocol, Environmental Evidence, vol.21, issue.1, pp.1-7, 2015.
DOI : 10.1186/s13750-015-0034-7

A. Pfaff, J. Robalino, R. Walker, S. Aldrich, and M. Caldas, ROAD INVESTMENTS, SPATIAL SPILLOVERS, AND DEFORESTATION IN THE BRAZILIAN AMAZON, Journal of Regional Science, vol.80, issue.1, pp.109-123, 2007.
DOI : 10.1126/science.292.5522.1651c

N. Picard, L. Gazull, and V. Freycon, Finding optimal routes for harvesting tree access, International Journal of Forest Engineering, vol.17, pp.35-49, 2006.

M. Pinard, B. Howlett, and D. Davidson, Site Conditions Limit Pioneer Tree Recruitment After Logging of Dipterocarp Forests in Sabah, Malaysia, Biotropica, vol.28, issue.1, pp.2-12, 1996.
DOI : 10.2307/2388766

M. A. Pinard, M. G. Barker, and J. Tay, Soil disturbance and post-logging forest recovery on bulldozer paths in Sabah, Malaysia, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.130, issue.1-3, pp.213-225, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S0378-1127(99)00192-9

M. A. Pinard, F. E. Putz, J. Tay, and T. E. Sullivan, Creating timber harvest guidelines for a reduced-impact logging project in Malaysia, Journal of Forestry, vol.93, pp.41-45, 1995.

J. C. Pinheiro and D. M. Bates, Mixed-effects models in S and S-PLUS, 2000.
DOI : 10.1007/978-1-4419-0318-1

P. Potapov, A. Yaroshenko, S. Turubanova, M. Dubinin, and L. Laestadius, Mapping the World's Intact Forest Landscapes by Remote Sensing, Ecology and Society, vol.13, issue.2, p.51, 2008.
DOI : 10.5751/ES-02670-130251

J. R. Poulsen, C. J. Clark, and B. M. Bolker, Decoupling the effects of logging and hunting on an Afrotropical animal community, Ecological Applications, vol.21, issue.5, pp.1819-1855, 2011.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.98333.x

J. R. Poulsen, C. J. Clark, G. Mavah, and P. W. Elkan, Bushmeat Supply and Consumption in a Tropical Logging Concession in Northern Congo, Conservation Biology, vol.39, issue.6, pp.1597-608, 2009.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01251.x

F. Putz, P. Sist, T. Fredericksen, and D. Dykstra, Reduced-impact logging: Challenges and opportunities, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.256, issue.7, pp.1427-1433, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.foreco.2008.03.036

F. E. Putz, D. P. Dykstra, and R. Heinrich, Why Poor Logging Practices Persist in the Tropics, Conservation Biology, vol.47, issue.4, pp.951-956, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S0378-1127(97)00020-0

F. E. Putz and C. Romero, Futures of tropical production forests. CIFOR occasional paper 143, 2015.

F. E. Putz, P. Zuidema, T. Synnott, M. Peña-claros, and M. A. Pinard, Sustaining conservation values in selectively logged tropical forests: the attained and the attainable, Conservation Letters, vol.144, issue.4, pp.296-303, 2012.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00242.x

R. Team, R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, 2014.

K. Redford, The Empty Forest, BioScience, vol.42, issue.6, pp.412-422, 1992.
DOI : 10.2307/1311860

R. Van-der-ree, D. J. Smith, and C. Grilo, Handbook of road ecology, 2015.
DOI : 10.1002/9781118568170

J. W. Reid and I. Bowles, Reducing the impacts of roads on tropical forests. Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, pp.10-35, 1997.

R. E. Rice, R. E. Gullison, and J. W. Reid, Can Sustainable Management Save Tropical Forests ?, Scientific American, vol.276, issue.4, pp.44-49, 1997.
DOI : 10.1038/scientificamerican0497-44

J. A. Richards, Remote Sensing Digital Image Analysis: An Introduction, 2012.

K. Riitters and J. Wickham, How far to the nearest road? Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, pp.125-129, 2003.

J. G. Robinson, K. H. Redford, and E. L. Bennett, CONSERVATION:Wildlife Harvest in Logged Tropical Forests, Science, vol.284, issue.5414, pp.595-596, 1999.
DOI : 10.1126/science.284.5414.595

I. M. Rosa, S. E. Ahmed, and R. M. Ewers, The transparency, reliability and utility of tropical rainforest land-use and land-cover change models. Global change biology, pp.1707-1729, 2014.

T. K. Rudel, R. Defries, G. P. Asner, and W. F. Laurance, Changing Drivers of Deforestation and New Opportunities for Conservation, Conservation Biology, vol.38, issue.6, pp.1396-1405, 2009.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01332.x

R. Perez, M. Ezzine-de-blas, D. Nasi, R. Sayer, J. Sassen et al., Logging in the Congo Basin: A multi-country characterization of timber companies. Forest Ecology and Management, pp.221-236, 2005.

R. Pérez, M. Ezzine-de-blas, D. Nasi, R. Sayer, J. Karsenty et al., Socioeconomic constraints, environmental impacts and drivers of change in the Congo Basin as perceived by logging companies, Environmental Conservation, vol.33, issue.04, p.316, 2006.
DOI : 10.1017/S0376892906003365

E. Rutishauser, C. Baraloto, L. Blanc, L. Descroix, and E. D. Sota, Rapid tree carbon recovery in Amazonian logged forests, Current Biology, vol.25, pp.191-201, 2015.

R. R. Schneider, Government and the economy on the amazon frontier, 1995.
DOI : 10.1596/0-8213-3353-4

M. Schulze and J. Zweede, Canopy dynamics in unlogged and logged forest stands in the eastern Amazon, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.236, issue.1, pp.56-64, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.foreco.2006.08.333

J. Sessions, Forest road operations in the tropics. Tropical Forestry, 2007.

D. Sheil and D. F. Burslem, Disturbing hypotheses in tropical forests, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol.18, issue.1, pp.18-26, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0169-5347(02)00005-8

P. Sist, Les techniques d'exploitation à faible impact, Bois et Forêts des Tropiques, vol.265, pp.31-43, 2000.

P. Sist, Reduced-impact logging in the tropics: objectives, principles and impacts, International Forestry Review, vol.2, pp.3-10, 2000.

P. Sist, D. Dykstra, and R. Fimbel, Reduced-impact logging guidelines for lowland and hill Dipterocarp forests in Indonesia. CIFOR Occasional Paper 15, Center for International Forestry Research, 1998.

C. M. Souza, D. Roberts, and M. A. Cochrane, Combining spectral and spatial information to map canopy damage from selective logging and forest fires, Remote Sensing of Environment, vol.98, issue.2-3, pp.329-343, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.rse.2005.07.013

H. Steinmann, Route, rail, voie fluviale et voie aérienne à travers la grande forêt équatoriale, Bois et Forêts des Tropiques, vol.8, pp.333-335, 1948.

M. D. Swaine and V. K. Agyeman, Enhanced Tree Recruitment Following Logging in Two Forest Reserves in Ghana, Biotropica, vol.200, issue.3, pp.370-374, 2008.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1744-7429.2007.00386.x

S. Teravaninthorn and G. Raballand, Transport prices and costs in Africa, 2009.

J. Terborgh, R. B. Foster, V. , P. N. Mar, and N. , Tropical Tree Communities: A Test of the Nonequilibrium Hypothesis, Ecology, vol.77, issue.2, pp.561-567, 1996.
DOI : 10.2307/2265630

T. Therneau, A Package for Survival Analysis in S. R package version 2, pp.37-44, 2014.

S. C. Trombulak and C. Frissell, Review of Ecological Effects of Roads on Terrestrial and Aquatic Communities, Conservation Biology, vol.47, issue.1, pp.18-30, 2000.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99084.x

M. Tuffier, Les niveleuses actuellement fabriquées dans le monde, Bois et Forêts des Tropiques, vol.35, pp.33-41, 1954.

C. Uhl and J. Kauffman, Deforestation, Fire Susceptibility, and Potential Tree Responses to Fire in the Eastern Amazon, Ecology, vol.71, issue.2, pp.437-449, 1990.
DOI : 10.2307/1940299

J. W. Veldman and F. E. Putz, Long-distance Dispersal of Invasive Grasses by Logging Vehicles in a Tropical Dry Forest, Biotropica, vol.7, issue.6, pp.697-703, 2010.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1744-7429.2010.00647.x

J. R. Vincent, The Tropical Timber Trade and Sustainable Development, Science, vol.256, issue.5064, pp.1651-1656, 1992.
DOI : 10.1126/science.256.5064.1651

N. Van-vliet and R. Nasi, Mise en évidence des facteurs du paysage agissant sur la répartition de la faune dans une concession forestière, p.15, 2007.

P. Walsh, P. Henschel, and K. Abernethy, Logging Speeds Little Red Fire Ant Invasion of Africa1, BIOTROPICA, vol.36, issue.4, pp.637-641, 2004.
DOI : 10.1646/1605

C. De-wasseige, Indicateurs nationaux de gestion forestière, 2015.

C. De-wasseige and P. Defourny, Remote sensing of selective logging impact for tropical forest management, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.188, issue.1-3, pp.161-173, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/j.foreco.2003.07.035

C. De-wasseige, J. Flynn, D. Louppe, F. Hiol, and P. Mayaux, The Forests of the Congo Basin ? State of the Forest, 2013.

R. D. Watts, R. W. Compton, J. H. Mccammon, C. L. Rich, and S. M. Wright, Roadless Space of the Conterminous United States, Science, vol.316, issue.5825, pp.316-736, 2007.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1138141

F. White, The vegetation of Africa: a descriptive memoir to accompany the Unesco/AETFAT/UNSO vegetation map of Africa. Natural resources research, 1983.

D. Wilkie and J. Carpenter, Bushmeat hunting in the Congo Basin: an assessment of impacts and options for mitigation, Biodiversity and Conservation, vol.8, issue.7, pp.927-955, 1999.
DOI : 10.1023/A:1008877309871

D. Wilkie, E. Shaw, F. Rotberg, G. Morelli, and P. Auzel, Roads, Development, and Conservation in the Congo Basin, Conservation Biology, vol.6, issue.6, pp.1614-1622, 2000.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2000.99102.x

D. S. Wilkie, E. L. Bennett, C. Peres, and A. Cunningham, The empty forest revisited, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol.95, issue.1, pp.120-128, 2011.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05908.x

E. Witkowski and M. Wilson, Changes in density, biomass, seed production and soil seed banks of the non-native invasive plant, <i>Chromolaena odorata</i> , along a 15 year chronosequence, pp.13-27, 2001.

W. Mddefe, Atlas forestier interactif du Congo. Version 3.0. Document de Synthese, World Resources Institute & République du Congo Ministère de l'economie forestière et du développement durable, 2012.

W. Mefcp, Atlas forestier interactif de la République centrafricaine version 1.0: Document de synthèse, World Resources Institute & Ministère des eaux forêts chasse et pêche de la République centrafricaine, 2010.

W. Minfof, Interactive forest atlas of Cameroon, 2012.

D. Yanggen, K. Angu, and N. Tchamou, Landscape-Scale Conservation in the Congo Basin, 2010.

R. Zang and Y. Ding, Forest recovery on abandoned logging roads in a tropical montane rain forest of Hainan Island, China, Acta Oecologica, vol.35, issue.3, pp.462-470, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.actao.2008.12.006

A. E. Zanne, G. Lopez-gonzalez, D. A. Coomes, J. Ilic, and S. Jansen, Data from: Towards a worldwide wood economics spectrum, 2009.

A. Ziegler, J. Negishi, R. C. Sidle, T. Gomi, and S. Noguchi, Persistence of road runoff generation in a logged catchment in Peninsular Malaysia, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 1947.
DOI : 10.1002/esp.1508

B. L. Zimmermann and C. F. Kormos, Prospects for sustainable logging in tropical forests, BioScience, vol.62, pp.479-487, 2012.

A. F. Zuur, E. N. Ieno, and C. S. Elphick, A protocol for data exploration to avoid common statistical problems, Methods in Ecology and Evolution, vol.57, issue.1, pp.3-14, 2010.
DOI : 10.1111/j.2041-210X.2009.00001.x

J. J. Zyl, The shuttle radar topography mission (SRTM): a breakthrough in remote sensing of topography, Acta Astronautica, vol.48, pp.559-565, 2001.