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, New Orleans was not the only city that had a place for slaves to freely gather. There was a place in Philadelphia, for example, where slaves met during the colonial period, 2011.
, Locals did not seem to find it worthy of documentation, except in arrest records. Indeed, some of the best evidence of African creative practices in New Orleans comes from the laws that were intended to control or prohibit them. See Jerah Johnson, Early references to Congo Square almost all come from notes taken by city outsiders, especially American European travellers such as Christian Schultz (1808), vol.33, pp.117-57, 1993.
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, the Maafa (pronounced "mah-AH-fa") is a procession held every July since 2000 in memory of the transatlantic slave trade. It begins at Congo Square and ends at the Algiers ferry landing
, The City of New Orleans's current parade permit application form even includes "foot races/marathons/walkathons" in its list of parades. City of New Orleans One Stop Permits and Licenses, NOLA.gov, 2015.
, Regular Meeting News Summary, NOLACityCouncil.com, 2014.
, Since Katrina the annual second line schedule has grown to include about 45 clubs, parading on 39 Sundays between the last Sunday in August and Fathers Day in mid-June. Weekends that do not have a second line parade include: Sundays that fall in the heat of summer (end of June through August), two weeks before Mardi Gras, and the last weekend in April and first in May when the New Orleans Jazz and Heritage Festival takes place. During Mardi Gras many SAPC members mask Indian
, Rollin' Wid It. 39 Sundays: Second-Line Season, Orleans: Unfathomable City, pp.107-115
, Social aid and pleasure clubs were originally established to provide economic assistance and proper burials for those without means. Recreational activities soon complemented the mutual aid functions of the fraternal groups
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, Mardi Gras Indian culture used to be an exclusively male preserve -"a warrior culture" -but it appears to be slowly changing. Cherice Harrison-Nelson has been masking as the Big Queen of the Guardians of the Flame since 1996. See Harrison-Nelson
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, Hades -A Dream of Momus" and offered a virulent caricature of local, state, and national Reconstruction leaders, including President Ulysses S. Grant, who was portrayed as Beelzebub, and General William Tecumseh Sherman, who was mocked as Baal. Other prominent Republicans who came under fire included James G. Blaine and Frederick Douglass. The final float showed the entire ship of state going up in flames. The satire was so outrageous that some Louisiana Republicans suggested that the organizers should be arrested. If the message were not clear enough, Comus's parade, which closed the season, celebrated the superiority of "The Aryan Race, The 1877 carnival, for example, celebrated the violent end of Reconstruction in Louisiana and the re-establishment of white rule, pp.125-128
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, That number was later reduced to $2,220, until another shooting brought it back up to $3, 2006.
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, The debate on parade fees has nevertheless left its marks: the present day fee of $1,985 has forced some clubs to pool their resources and stage a single parade involving several clubs, each having their own division and their own brass band
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, Joseph's Night Gone Blue, 2005.
, Bernard Avenue during a ritualistic meeting of two prominent leaders, Big Chief Victor Harris from Spirit of FiYiYi and Second Chief David Montana from the Yellow Pocahontas. See Katy Reckdahl, for instance, a squad car with its siren blasting disrupted nearly twenty Indians fanned out along St, p.52, 2010.
, Beyond Jazzfest, Ruffled Feathers in New Orleans
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, Pointing to Indian performances at mainstream events such as Jazz Fest or to museums displaying used Indian outfits (the custom used to be to burn them after St Joseph's night), critics are quick to point out that what used to be an underground art form is becoming "an ethnic commodity that symbolizes black New Orleans, p.49
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, Interview with the Krewe of Eris Founders, Very few interviews of this founding couple exist, as Eris -like many anarchist organizations in New Orleans -cultivates, vol.2, 2011.
, What the Occupy Movement Can Learn From a New Orleans Subculture, The Atlantic, 2012.
, Eight of the cases were eventually resolved -including four with plea deals and one with dropped charges -while the Orleans Parish district attorney's office moved three others to municipal court. One arrestee, William Watkins III, was given a jail term of 45 days. Two failed to appear for court hearings. See John Simerman, Times-Picayune, 2011.
, 65 In 2012, most of the latter joined a splinter group called "The Krewe of Witches
, What the Occupy Movement Can Learn From a New Orleans Subculture, vol.67
, Freedom and Cultural Consciousness, p.509
, According to Diane Grams, the total number of parades has grown from near thirty in the parade season following Katrina's landfall, 2005.
, People as Infrastructure, p.408
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, , p.33
, Authentic New Orleans
, for example, a coalition of social aid and pleasure clubs organized a parade to protest the destruction of Charity Hospital (which provided two-thirds of the care for the uninsured in NOLA until 2005) in the face of plans for a new medical centre that would require demolition of parts of Mid-City New Orleans rebuilt since the storm, 2009.
, Democracy Despite Government, p.328
, Space Hijacking and the Anarcho-Politics of Leisure, Leisure Studies, vol.32, pp.49-68, 2013.
, Meet de Boys on the Battlefront": Festive Parades and the Struggl
, « "Meet de Boys on the Battlefront": Festive Parades and the Struggle to Reclaim Public Spaces in Post-Katrina New Orleans, pp.10-13, 2015.