J. Juul, The game, the player, the world: Looking for a heart of gameness, Level Up: Digital Games Research Conference Proceedings, pp.30-45, 2003.

T. W. Malone, Heuristics for designing enjoyable user interfaces, Proceedings of the 1982 conference on Human factors in computing systems , CHI '82, pp.63-68, 1982.
DOI : 10.1145/800049.801756

N. Lazzaro, Why we play games: Four keys to more emotion without story, Game Developers Conference, 2004.

P. Sweetser and P. Wyeth, GameFlow, Computers in Entertainment, vol.3, issue.3, pp.3-3, 2005.
DOI : 10.1145/1077246.1077253

J. Nakamura and M. Csikszentmihalyi, The Concept of Flow, pp.239-263, 2014.
DOI : 10.1007/978-94-017-9088-8_16

T. Allart, G. Levieux, M. Pierfitte, A. Guilloux, and S. Natkin, Difficulty influence on motivation over time in video games using survival analysis, Proceedings of the International Conference on the Foundations of Digital Games , FDG '17, 2017.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1541-0420.2011.01692.x

R. M. Ryan, C. S. Rigby, and A. Przybylski, The Motivational Pull of Video Games: A Self-Determination Theory Approach, Motivation and Emotion, vol.66, issue.4, pp.344-360, 2006.
DOI : 10.1123/jsp.6.1.94

J. Juul, A Casual Revolution: Reinventing Video Games and Their Players, 2009.

J. Juul, The Art of Failure. 1 edn, 2013.

R. Hunicke, The case for dynamic difficulty adjustment in games, Proceedings of the 2005 ACM SIGCHI International Conference on Advances in computer entertainment technology , ACE '05, pp.429-433, 2005.
DOI : 10.1145/1178477.1178573

G. Andrade, G. Ramalho, H. Santana, and V. Corruble, Extending reinforcement learning to provide dynamic game balancing, Proceedings of the Workshop on Reasoning, Representation, and Learning in Computer Games, 19th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI), pp.7-12, 2005.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01493239

R. Vicencio-moreira, R. L. Mandryk, and C. Gutwin, Now You Can Compete With Anyone, Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '15, pp.2255-2264, 2015.
DOI : 10.1145/258549.258724

P. Rani, N. Sarkar, and C. Liu, Maintaining optimal challenge in computer games through real-time physiological feedback, Proceedings of the 11th international conference on human computer interaction, 2005.

D. Afergan, E. M. Peck, E. T. Solovey, A. Jenkins, S. W. Hincks et al., Dynamic difficulty using brain metrics of workload, Proceedings of the 32nd annual ACM conference on Human factors in computing systems, CHI '14, pp.3797-3806, 2014.
DOI : 10.1145/2556288.2557230

M. V. Aponte, G. Levieux, and S. Natkin, Difficulty in videogames, Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Advances in Computer Entertainment Technology, ACE '11, pp.1-18, 2011.
DOI : 10.1145/2071423.2071484

K. Passyn and M. Sujan, Skill-based versus effort-based task difficulty: A task-analysis approach to the role of specific emotions in motivating difficult actions, Journal of Consumer Psychology, vol.20, issue.3, pp.461-468, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jcps.2010.01.003

G. Levieux, Mesure de la difficulté dans les jeux vidéo, Thèse, Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers CNAM Paris, 2011.

R. Hunicke, M. Leblanc, and R. Zubeck, MDA: A Formal Approach to Game Design and Game Research, Proceedings of the AAAI Workshop on Challenges in Game AI, 2004.

D. Delignì-eres and J. Famose, Perception de la difficulté et nature de la tâche, Science et motricité, vol.23, pp.39-47, 1994.

G. Borg, O. Bratfisch, and S. Dorni-'c, ON THE PROBLEMS OF PERCEIVED DIFFICULTY, Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, vol.43, issue.11, pp.249-260, 1971.
DOI : 10.1080/00221309.1950.9710619

A. B. Slifkin and S. M. Grilli, Aiming for the future: prospective action difficulty, prescribed difficulty, and Fitts??? law, Experimental Brain Research, vol.11, issue.4, pp.746-753, 2006.
DOI : 10.1080/00222895.1976.10735061

D. Delignì-eres and J. P. Famose, Perception de la difficult??, entropie et performance, Science & Sports, vol.7, issue.4, pp.245-252, 1992.
DOI : 10.1016/S0765-1597(05)80097-8

D. Delignì-eres, J. P. Famose, and J. Genty, Validation d'uné echelle de catégories pour la perception de la difficulté, Revue STAPS, vol.34, pp.77-88, 1994.

D. Delignì-eres, J. P. Famose, C. Thépaut-mathieu, and P. Fleurance, A psychophysical study of difficulty rating in rock climbing, International Journal of Sport Psychology, vol.24, pp.404-404, 1993.

D. Delignì-eres, J. Brisswalter, and P. Legros, Influence of physical exercise on choice reaction time in sports experts: the mediating role of resource allocation, Journal of Human Movement Studies, vol.27, issue.4, pp.173-188, 1994.

P. M. Fitts, The information capacity of the human motor system in controlling the amplitude of movement., Journal of Experimental Psychology, vol.47, issue.6, p.381, 1954.
DOI : 10.1037/h0055392

D. Kahneman and S. Frederick, A model of heuristic judgment The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning. 1 edn, pp.267-293, 2005.

A. K. Shah and D. M. Oppenheimer, Heuristics made easy: An effort-reduction framework., Psychological Bulletin, vol.134, issue.2, pp.207-229, 2008.
DOI : 10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.207

D. Kahneman and A. Tversky, Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases, Science, pp.185-4157, 1974.
DOI : 10.1017/CBO9780511809477

J. E. Russo and P. J. Schoemaker, Managing overconfidence, Sloan Management Review, vol.33, issue.2, pp.7-17, 1992.

V. Bessì-ere, Excès de confiance des dirigeants et décisionsfinancì eres: une synthèse, Finance Contrôle Stratégie, vol.10, pp.39-66, 2007.

D. A. Moore and P. J. Healy, The trouble with overconfidence., Psychological Review, vol.115, issue.2, pp.502-519, 2008.
DOI : 10.1037/0033-295X.115.2.502

D. Griffin and A. Tversky, The weighing of evidence and the determinants of confidence, Cognitive psychology, pp.411435-411, 1992.

D. D. Johnson and J. H. Fowler, The evolution of overconfidence, Nature, vol.70, issue.7364, pp.317-337, 2011.
DOI : 10.1017/S0022381608080341

A. Bandura, Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change., Psychological Review, vol.84, issue.2, pp.191-215, 1977.
DOI : 10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191

G. Keren, Facing uncertainty in the game of bridge: A calibration study, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, vol.39, issue.1, pp.98-114, 1987.
DOI : 10.1016/0749-5978(87)90047-1

J. Linnet, L. Gebauer, H. Shaffer, K. Mouridsen, and A. Møller, Experienced poker players differ from inexperienced poker players in estimation bias and decision bias, Journal of Gambling Issues, vol.49, issue.24, pp.86-100, 2010.
DOI : 10.1023/A:1024983300428

Y. J. Park and L. Santos-pinto, Overconfidence in tournaments: evidence from the field, Theory and Decision, vol.94, issue.4, pp.143-166, 2010.
DOI : 10.1257/aer.89.1.306

J. Sundali and R. Croson, Biases in casino betting : The hot hand and the gambler ' s fallacy, Judgment and Decision Making, vol.1, issue.1, pp.1-12, 2006.

J. Parke and M. Griffiths, The Psychology of the Fruit Machine: The Role of Structural Characteristics (Revisited), International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, vol.74, issue.2, pp.151-179, 2006.
DOI : 10.2466/pr0.1969.25.1.19

S. Lichtenstein and B. Fischhoff, Do those who know more also know more about how much they know?, Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, vol.20, issue.2, pp.159-183, 1977.
DOI : 10.1016/0030-5073(77)90001-0

J. Klayman and J. B. Soll, Overconfidence: It Depends on How, What, and Whom You Ask, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, vol.79, issue.3, pp.216-247, 1999.
DOI : 10.1006/obhd.1999.2847

D. Kahneman and A. Tversky, Subjective probability: A judgment of representativeness, Cognitive Psychology, vol.3, issue.3, pp.430-454, 1972.
DOI : 10.1016/0010-0285(72)90016-3

R. Croson and J. Sundali, The Gambler???s Fallacy and the Hot Hand: Empirical Data from Casinos, Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, vol.91, issue.3, pp.195-209, 2005.
DOI : 10.2466/pr0.1985.56.3.883

T. Gilovich, R. Vallone, and A. Tversky, The hot hand in basketball: On the misperception of random sequences, Cognitive Psychology, vol.17, issue.3, pp.295-314, 1985.
DOI : 10.1016/0010-0285(85)90010-6

E. J. Langer, The illusion of control., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol.32, issue.2, pp.311-328, 1975.
DOI : 10.1037/0022-3514.32.2.311

A. S. Goodie, The Role of Perceived Control and Overconfidence in Pathological Gambling, Journal of Gambling Studies, vol.12, issue.4, pp.481-502, 2005.
DOI : 10.1176/ajp.144.9.1184

B. D. Pulford and A. M. Colman, Overconfidence: Feedback and item difficulty effects, Personality and Individual Differences, vol.23, issue.1, pp.125-133, 1997.
DOI : 10.1016/S0191-8869(97)00028-7

URL : https://lra.le.ac.uk/bitstream/2381/470/3/Overconfidence%20-%20Feedback%20and%20item%20difficulty.pdf

G. Costikyan, Uncertainty in Games. 1 edn, 2013.

P. Lankoski and S. Björk, Game Research Methods: An Overview. 1 edn, 2015.

D. Bates, M. Mächler, B. M. Bolker, and S. C. Walker, Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4, Journal of Statistical Software, vol.67, issue.1, pp.1-48, 2015.

G. Chen, S. M. Gully, and D. Eden, Validation of a New General Self-Efficacy Scale, Organizational Research Methods, vol.4, issue.1, pp.62-83, 2001.
DOI : 10.2466/pr0.1993.72.2.423

A. Bandura, Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents. 1 edn, Information Age Publishing, pp.307-337, 2006.

C. A. Holt and S. K. Laury, Risk Aversion and Incentive Effects, American Economic Review, vol.92, issue.5, pp.1644-1655, 2002.
DOI : 10.1257/000282802762024700

URL : http://people.virginia.edu/~cah2k/highpay.pdf

S. Nakagawa and H. Schielzeth, from generalized linear mixed-effects models, Methods in Ecology and Evolution, vol.22, issue.2, pp.133-142, 2013.
DOI : 10.1002/sim.1572

G. Keren, On The Calibration of Probability Judgments: Some Critical Comments and Alternative Perspectives, Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, vol.10, issue.3, pp.269-278, 1997.
DOI : 10.1002/(SICI)1099-0771(199709)10:3<269::AID-BDM281>3.0.CO;2-L

B. M. Barber and T. Odean, Boys will be Boys: Gender, Overconfidence, and Common Stock Investment, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol.116, issue.1, pp.261-292, 2001.
DOI : 10.1162/003355301556400

D. N. Stone, Overconfidence in Initial Self-Efficacy Judgments: Effects on Decision Processes and Performance, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, vol.59, issue.3, pp.452-474, 1994.
DOI : 10.1006/obhd.1994.1069

R. Caillois, Les jeux et les hommes : le masque et le vertige, 1958.

H. R. Arkes, C. Christensen, C. Lai, and C. Blumer, Two methods of reducing overconfidence, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, vol.39, issue.1, pp.133-144, 1987.
DOI : 10.1016/0749-5978(87)90049-5