C. Alenda, J. Montarry, and E. Grenier, Human influence on the dispersal and genetic structure of French Globodera tabacum populations, Infection, Genetics and Evolution, vol.27, pp.309-317, 2014.
DOI : 10.1016/j.meegid.2014.07.027
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01208743

S. Amiri, S. Subbotin, and M. Moens, Identification of the beet cyst nematode Heterodera schachtii by PCR, European Journal of Plant Pathology, vol.108, issue.6, pp.497-506, 2002.
DOI : 10.1023/A:1019974101225

E. A. Archie and V. O. Ezenwa, Population genetic structure and history of a generalist parasite infecting multiple sympatric host species???, International Journal for Parasitology, vol.41, issue.1, pp.89-98, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.ijpara.2010.07.014

F. Austerlitz, S. Mariette, N. Machon, P. Gouyon, and B. Godelle, Effects of colonization processes on genetic diversity: Differences between annual plants and tree species, Genetics, vol.154, pp.1309-1321, 2000.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00525770

L. Awad, B. Fady, C. Khater, A. Roig, and R. Cheddadi, Genetic Structure and Diversity of the Endangered Fir Tree of Lebanon (Abies cilicica Carr.): Implications for Conservation, PLoS ONE, vol.79, issue.8, p.90086, 2014.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0090086.s001

F. Balloux, EASYPOP (Version 1.7): A Computer Program for Population Genetics Simulations, Journal of Heredity, vol.92, issue.3, pp.301-302, 2001.
DOI : 10.1093/jhered/92.3.301

J. S. Barker, (Diptera: Drosophilidae) in Australia, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, vol.109, issue.3, pp.682-698, 2013.
DOI : 10.1111/bij.12067

M. S. Blouin, J. Liu, and R. E. Berry, Life cycle variation and the genetic structure of nematode populations, Heredity, vol.83, issue.3, pp.253-259, 1999.
DOI : 10.1038/sj.hdy.6885420

A. C. Boucher, B. Mimee, J. Montarry, S. Bardou-valette, G. Bélair et al., Genetic diversity of the golden potato cyst nematode Globodera rostochiensis and determination of the origin of populations in Quebec, Canada, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, vol.69, issue.1, pp.75-82, 2013.
DOI : 10.1016/j.ympev.2013.05.020
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01208645

L. Bousset, Epidémies cycliques sur les cultures des agro-écosystèmes: Adaptation des champignons aux résistances variétales, Université Rennes, vol.1, 2014.

L. Bousset and A. Chèvre, Stable epidemic control in crops based on evolutionary principles: Adjusting the metapopulation concept to agro-ecosystems, Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, vol.165, pp.118-129, 2013.
DOI : 10.1016/j.agee.2012.12.005
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01208640

T. Broquet and E. J. Petit, Molecular Estimation of Dispersal for Ecology and Population Genetics, Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, vol.40, issue.1, pp.193-216, 2009.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.110308.120324
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00448683

J. J. Burdon and P. H. Thrall, Pathogen evolution across the agro-ecological interface: implications for disease management, Evolutionary Applications, vol.20, issue.1, pp.57-65, 2008.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1752-4571.2007.00005.x

D. Meeûs, T. Goudet, and J. , A step-by-step tutorial to use HierFstat to analyse populations hierarchically structured at multiple levels, Infection, Genetics and Evolution, vol.7, issue.6, pp.731-735, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.meegid.2007.07.005

E. Mousadik, A. Petit, and R. J. , High level of genetic differentiation for allelic richness among populations of the argan tree [Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels] endemic to Morocco, Theoretical and Applied Genetics, vol.92, issue.7, pp.832-839, 1996.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00221895

B. G. Falk and S. L. Perkins, Host specificity shapes population structure of pinworm parasites in Caribbean reptiles, Molecular Ecology, vol.4, issue.17, pp.4576-4590, 2013.
DOI : 10.1111/mec.12410

L. Favre-bac, C. Mony, A. Ernoult, F. Burel, and J. Arnaud, Ditch network sustains functional connectivity and influences patterns of gene flow in an intensive agricultural landscape, Heredity, vol.46, issue.2, pp.200-212, 2016.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2010.01487.x
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01239555

E. Fournier and T. Giraud, Sympatric genetic differentiation of a generalist pathogenic fungus, Botrytis cinerea, on two different host plants, grapevine and bramble, Journal of Evolutionary Biology, vol.14, issue.6, pp.122-132, 2008.
DOI : 10.2307/2408641

S. Gandon, Y. Capowiez, Y. Dubois, Y. Michalakis, and I. Olivieri, Local Adaptation and Gene-For-Gene Coevolution in a Metapopulation Model, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.263, issue.1373, pp.1003-1009, 1996.
DOI : 10.1098/rspb.1996.0148
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00336364

A. Gilabert and J. D. Wasmuth, Unravelling parasitic nematode natural history using population genetics, Trends in Parasitology, vol.29, issue.9, pp.438-448, 2013.
DOI : 10.1016/j.pt.2013.07.006

I. Glais, J. Montarry, R. Corbière, C. Pasco, B. Marquer et al., Long-distance gene flow outweighs a century of Gracianne et al, 1015.

J. Goudet, FSTAT (Version 1.2): A Computer Program to Calculate F-Statistics, Journal of Heredity, vol.86, issue.6, pp.485-486, 1995.
DOI : 10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a111627

J. Goudet, hierfstat, a package for r to compute and test hierarchical F-statistics, Molecular Ecology Notes, vol.52, issue.3, pp.184-186, 2005.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1471-8286.2004.00828.x

C. Gracianne, E. J. Petit, J. Arnaud, C. Porte, L. Renault et al., Spatial distribution and basic ecology of Heterodera schachtii and H. betae wild populations developing on sea beet, Beta vulgaris ssp. maritima, Nematology, vol.16, issue.7, pp.797-805, 2014.
DOI : 10.1163/15685411-00002809
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01110980

M. A. Greischar and B. Koskella, A synthesis of experimental work on parasite local adaptation, Ecology Letters, vol.4, issue.5, pp.418-434, 2007.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1420-9101.1999.00101.x

O. J. Hardy and X. Vekemans, spagedi: a versatile computer program to analyse spatial genetic structure at the individual or population levels, Molecular Ecology Notes, vol.38, issue.4, pp.618-620, 2002.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-294X.1998.00360.x

N. C. Hautekèete, Y. Piquot, and H. Van-dijk, : the effects of age at first reproduction and disturbance, Journal of Ecology, vol.109, issue.3, pp.508-516, 2002.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-2745.2002.00688.x

D. W. Hutchison and A. R. Templeton, Correlation of Pairwise Genetic and Geographic Distance Measures: Inferring the Relative Influences of Gene Flow and Drift on the Distribution of Genetic Variability, Evolution, vol.53, issue.6, pp.1898-1914, 1999.
DOI : 10.2307/2640449

K. M. Ibrahim, R. A. Nichols, and G. M. Hewitt, Spatial patterns of genetic variation generated by different forms of dispersal during range expansion, Heredity, vol.77, issue.3, pp.282-291, 1996.
DOI : 10.1038/hdy.1996.142

P. Jan, C. Gracianne, S. Fournet, E. Olivier, J. Arnaud et al., Temporal sampling helps unravel the genetic structure of naturally occurring populations of a phytoparasitic nematode. 1. Insights from the estimation of effective population sizes, Evolutionary Applications, vol.14, issue.3, pp.489-501, 2016.
DOI : 10.1111/eva.12352
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01361308

T. Jombart, adegenet: a R package for the multivariate analysis of genetic markers, Bioinformatics, vol.24, issue.11, pp.1403-1405, 2008.
DOI : 10.1093/bioinformatics/btn129
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00428105

J. T. Jones, A. Haegeman, E. G. Danchin, H. S. Gaur, J. Helder et al., Top 10 plant-parasitic nematodes in molecular plant pathology, Molecular Plant Pathology, vol.4, issue.9, pp.946-961, 2013.
DOI : 10.1111/mpp.12057

C. Lebarbenchon, S. P. Brown, R. Poulin, M. Gauthier-clerc, and F. Thomas, Evolution of pathogens in a man-made world, Molecular Ecology, vol.11, issue.1, pp.475-484, 2008.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03375.x

A. Lebeda, I. Petr?elová, and Z. Mary?ka, Structure and variation in the wild-plant pathosystem: Lactuca serriola???Bremia lactucae, European Journal of Plant Pathology, vol.83, issue.Suppl. S, pp.127-146, 2008.
DOI : 10.1007/s10658-008-9291-4

T. Leroy, L. Cam, B. Lemaire, and C. , When virulence originates from non-agricultural hosts: New insights into plant breeding, Infection, Genetics and Evolution, vol.27, pp.521-529, 2014.
DOI : 10.1016/j.meegid.2013.12.022
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01210001

B. A. Loiselle, V. L. Sork, J. Nason, and C. Graham, Spatial Genetic Structure of a Tropical Understory Shrub, Psychotria officinalis (Rubiaceae), American Journal of Botany, vol.82, issue.11, pp.1420-1425, 1995.
DOI : 10.2307/2445869

S. Mallez, C. Castagnone, M. Espada, P. Vieira, J. D. Eisenback et al., Worldwide invasion routes of the pinewood nematode: What can we infer from population genetics analyses?, Biological Invasions, vol.97, issue.4, pp.1119-1213, 2015.
DOI : 10.1007/s10530-014-0788-9

S. Mallez, C. Castagnone, M. Espada, P. Vieira, J. D. Eisenback et al., First Insights into the Genetic Diversity of the Pinewood Nematode in Its Native Area Using New Polymorphic Microsatellite Loci, PLoS ONE, vol.13, issue.2, p.59165, 2013.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0059165.t003

S. Manel, O. E. Gaggiotti, and R. S. Waples, Assignment methods: matching biological questions with appropriate techniques, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol.20, issue.3, pp.136-142, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.tree.2004.12.004
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00276308

P. Menozzi, A. Piazza, and L. Cavalli-sforza, Synthetic maps of human gene frequencies in Europeans, Science, vol.201, issue.4358, pp.786-792, 1978.
DOI : 10.1126/science.356262

J. Montarry, I. Glais, R. Corbiere, and D. Andrivon, Adaptation to the most abundant host genotype in an agricultural plant-pathogen system - potato late blight, Journal of Evolutionary Biology, vol.106, issue.5, pp.1397-1407, 2008.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2008.01557.x

J. Montarry, P. Jan, C. Gracianne, A. D. Overall, S. Bardou-valette et al., Heterozygote deficits in cyst plant-parasitic nematodes: possible causes and consequences, Molecular Ecology, vol.15, issue.8, pp.1654-1677, 2015.
DOI : 10.1111/mec.13142
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01208766

C. L. Monteil, R. Cai, H. Liu, M. Llontop, M. E. Leman et al., crop pathogens, New Phytologist, vol.18, issue.Suppl 2, pp.800-811, 2013.
DOI : 10.1111/nph.12316

E. R. Morgan, E. L. Clare, R. Jefferies, and . Stevens, Parasite epidemiology in a changing world: can molecular phylogeography help us tell the wood from the trees?, Parasitology, vol.27, issue.14, pp.1924-1938, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.virusres.2008.07.024

A. D. Morgan, S. Gandon, and A. Buckling, The effect of migration on local adaptation in a coevolving host???parasite system, Nature, vol.80, issue.7056, pp.253-256, 2005.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-2958.1996.391926.x

D. A. Morrison and J. Hoglund, Testing the hypothesis of recent population expansions in nematode parasites of human-associated hosts, Heredity, vol.94, issue.4, pp.426-434, 2005.
DOI : 10.1038/sj.hdy.6800623

D. C. Norton and T. L. Niblack, Biology and ecology of nematodes, Manual of agricultural nematology, pp.47-73, 1991.

D. Paetkau, R. Slade, M. Burden, and A. Estoup, Genetic assignment methods for the direct, real-time estimation of migration rate: a simulation-based exploration of accuracy and power, Molecular Ecology, vol.16, issue.1, pp.55-65, 2004.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-2540.1999.00496.x

F. Pereira, C. Moreira, L. Fonseca, B. Van-asch, M. Mota et al., New Insights into the Phylogeny and Worldwide Dispersion of Two Closely Related Nematode Species, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus and Bursaphelenchus mucronatus, PLoS ONE, vol.127, issue.2, p.56288, 2013.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0056288.s001

E. L. Petrou, L. Hauser, R. S. Waples, J. E. Seeb, W. D. Templin et al., ), Molecular Ecology, vol.28, issue.23, pp.5848-5860, 2013.
DOI : 10.1111/mec.12543

D. Picard and O. Plantard, What constitutes a population for the plant parasitic nematode Globodera pallida in its native area (Peru)?, International Journal for Parasitology, vol.36, issue.1, pp.115-122, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.ijpara.2005.08.015

S. Piry, A. Alapetite, J. Cornuet, D. Paetkau, L. Baudouin et al., GENECLASS2: A Software for Genetic Assignment and First-Generation Migrant Detection, Journal of Heredity, vol.95, issue.6, pp.536-539, 2004.
DOI : 10.1093/jhered/esh074

O. Plantard, D. Picard, S. Valette, M. Scurrah, E. Grenier et al., ) inferred from mitochondrial sequences and microsatellite loci, Molecular Ecology, vol.43, issue.9, pp.2208-2218, 2008.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.03718.x

O. Plantard and C. Porte, Population genetic structure of the sugar beet cyst nematode Heterodera schachtii: a gonochoristic and amphimictic species with highly inbred but weakly differentiated populations, Molecular Ecology, vol.30, issue.1, pp.33-41, 2004.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-294X.2003.01811.x

C. Porte, H. Marzin, C. Muchembled, A. Buisson, L. Ladevèze et al., Dynamique des populations telluriques du nématode à kystes, Heterodera schachtii, sous l'effet de variétés résistantes de betterave sucrière, ANPP?5ème Conférence internationale sur les ravageurs en agriculture, 1999.

J. K. Pritchard, M. Stephens, and P. Donnelly, Inference of population structure using multilocus genotype data, Genetics, vol.155, pp.945-959, 2000.

R. Development and C. Team, R: A language and environment for statistical computing, 2012.

B. Rannala and J. L. Mountain, Detecting immigration by using multilocus genotypes, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, pp.9197-9201, 1997.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.94.17.9197

F. Rousset, Genetic differentiation and estimation of gene flow from F-statistics under isolation by distance, Genetics, vol.145, pp.1219-1228, 1997.

M. Rouxel, P. Mestre, A. Baudoin, O. Carisse, L. Delière et al., Causing Downy Mildew on Wild and Cultivated Grape in Eastern North America, Phytopathology, vol.104, issue.7, pp.692-701, 2014.
DOI : 10.1094/PHYTO-08-13-0225-R

G. Ruysschaert, J. Poesen, A. Wauters, G. Govers, and G. Verstraeten, Factors controlling soil loss during sugar beet harvesting at the field plot scale in Belgium, European Journal of Soil Science, vol.180, issue.6, pp.1400-1409, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.still.2005.02.016

A. L. Seyfert, M. E. Cristescu, L. Frisse, S. Schaack, W. K. Thomas et al., The Rate and Spectrum of Microsatellite Mutation in Caenorhabditis elegans and Daphnia pulex, Genetics, vol.178, issue.4, pp.2113-2121, 2008.
DOI : 10.1534/genetics.107.081927

M. Slatkin, Gene Flow in Natural Populations, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, vol.16, issue.1, pp.393-430, 1985.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.es.16.110185.002141

P. E. Smouse, J. C. Long, and R. R. Sokal, Multiple Regression and Correlation Extensions of the Mantel Test of Matrix Correspondence, Systematic Zoology, vol.35, issue.4, pp.627-632, 1986.
DOI : 10.2307/2413122

R. R. Sokal and D. E. Wartenberg, A test of spatial autocorrelation analysis using an isolation-by-distance model, Genetics, vol.105, pp.219-237, 1983.

E. H. Stukenbrock and B. A. Mcdonald, The Origins of Plant Pathogens in Agro-Ecosystems, Annual Review of Phytopathology, vol.46, issue.1, pp.75-100, 2008.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.phyto.010708.154114

S. A. Subbotin, M. Mundo-ocampo, and J. G. Baldwin, Description And Diagnosis Of Heterodera Species, Systematics of Cyst Nematodes (Nematoda: Heteroderinae), pp.35-450, 2010.
DOI : 10.1163/ej.9789004164345.i-512.14

P. Thrall and J. Burdon, Evolution of gene-for-gene systems in metapopulations: the effect of spatial scale of host and pathogen dispersal, Plant Pathology, vol.41, issue.2, pp.169-184, 2002.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-3059.2000.00523.x

W. H. Van-der-putten, R. Cook, S. Costa, K. G. Davies, M. Fargette et al., Nematode Interactions in Nature: Models for Sustainable Control of Nematode Pests of Crop Plants?, pp.227-260, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/S0065-2113(05)89005-4

L. Villate, D. Esmenjaud, M. Van-helden, S. Stoeckel, and O. Plantard, Genetic signature of amphimixis allows for the detection and fine scale localization of sexual reproduction events in a mainly parthenogenetic nematode, Molecular Ecology, vol.52, issue.5, pp.856-873, 2010.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04511.x

L. Villate, V. Fievet, B. Hanse, F. Delemarre, O. Plantard et al., in French Vineyard, Phytopathology, vol.98, issue.8, pp.942-948, 2008.
DOI : 10.1094/PHYTO-98-8-0942

H. R. Wallace, The Dynamics of Nematode Movement, Annual Review of Phytopathology, vol.6, issue.1, pp.91-114, 1968.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.py.06.090168.000515

J. L. Wang, Estimation of migration rates from marker-based parentage analysis, Molecular Ecology, vol.15, issue.13, pp.3191-3213, 2014.
DOI : 10.1111/mec.12806

R. S. Waples and O. Gaggiotti, What is a population? An empirical evaluation of some genetic methods for identifying the number of gene pools and their degree of connectivity, Molecular Ecology, vol.12, issue.6, pp.1419-1439, 2006.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2006.02890.x

A. Westphal, under Susceptible, Resistant, or Tolerant Sugar Beet Cultivars, Plant Disease, vol.97, issue.1, pp.101-106, 2013.
DOI : 10.1094/PDIS-05-12-0476-RE