G. Cumming and M. Child, Contrasting spatial patterns of taxonomic and functional richness offer insights into potential loss of ecosystem services, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.9, issue.5619, pp.1683-1692, 2009.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1080003

R. Anderson and R. May, Infectious diseases of humans: dynamics and control, 1991.

R. Plowright, S. Sokolow, M. Gorman, P. Daszak, and J. Foley, Causal inference in disease ecology: investigating ecological drivers of disease emergence, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, vol.24, issue.8, pp.420-429, 2008.
DOI : 10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0989:TEAEHO]2.0.CO;2

N. Komar, S. Langevin, S. Hinten, N. Nemeth, E. Edwards et al., Experimental Infection of North American Birds with the New York 1999 Strain of West Nile Virus, Emerging Infectious Diseases, vol.9, issue.3, pp.311-322, 2003.
DOI : 10.3201/eid0903.020628

K. Logiudice, R. Ostfeld, K. Schmidt, and F. Keesing, The ecology of infectious disease: Effects of host diversity and community composition on Lyme disease risk, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.100, issue.2, pp.567-571, 2003.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.0233733100

A. Caron, S. Morand, M. De-garine-wichatitsky, S. Morand, and F. Beaudeau, Epidemiological Interaction at the Wildlife/Livestock/Human Interface: Can We Anticipate Emerging Infectious Diseases in Their Hotspots? A Framework for Understanding Emerging Diseases Processes in Their Hot Spots, New Frontiers of Molecular Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases, 2012.
DOI : 10.1007/978-94-007-2114-2_14

A. Caron, M. De-garine-wichatitsky, M. Ndlovu, and G. Cumming, Linking avian communities and avian influenza ecology in southern Africa using epidemiological functional groups, Veterinary Research, vol.43, issue.1, p.73, 2012.
DOI : 10.1080/03079451003599268

M. Viana, R. Mancy, R. Biek, S. Cleaveland, P. Cross et al., Assembling evidence for identifying reservoirs of infection, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol.29, issue.5, pp.270-279, 2014.
DOI : 10.1016/j.tree.2014.03.002

D. Haydon, S. Cleaveland, L. Taylor, and M. Laurenson, Identifying reservoirs of infection: a conceptual and practical challenge, Emerg Infect Dis, vol.8, pp.1468-1473, 2002.

R. Ashford, When Is a Reservoir Not a Reservoir?, Emerging Infectious Diseases, vol.9, issue.11, pp.1495-1496, 2003.
DOI : 10.3201/eid0911.030088

G. Nugent, Maintenance, spillover and spillback transmission of bovine tuberculosis in multi-host wildlife complexes: A New Zealand case study, Veterinary Microbiology, vol.151, issue.1-2, pp.34-42, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.02.023

S. Paull, S. Song, K. Mcclure, L. Sackett, A. Kilpatrick et al., From superspreaders to disease hotspots: linking transmission across hosts and space, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, vol.42, issue.2, pp.75-82, 2012.
DOI : 10.1038/35077149

A. Fenton and A. Pedersen, Community Epidemiology Framework for Classifying Disease Threats, Emerging Infectious Diseases, vol.11, issue.12, pp.1815-1821, 2005.
DOI : 10.3201/eid1112.050306

R. Ashford, What it takes to be a reservoir host, Belg J Zool, vol.127, pp.85-90, 1997.

G. Suzán, G. García-peña, I. Castro-arellano, O. Rico, A. Rubio et al., Metacommunity and phylogenetic structure determine wildlife and zoonotic infectious disease patterns in time and space, Ecology and Evolution, vol.147, issue.4, pp.865-873, 2015.
DOI : 10.1002/ece3.1404

R. Plowright, P. Eby, P. Hudson, I. Smith, D. Westcott et al., Ecological dynamics of emerging bat virus spillover, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.6, issue.8, p.20142124, 2015.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0042689

P. Johnson, D. Preston, J. Hoverman, and K. Richgels, Biodiversity decreases disease through predictable changes in host community competence, Nature, vol.24, issue.7436, pp.230-233, 2013.
DOI : 10.1038/nature11883

C. Teru, V. Manu, S. Ahmed, G. Junaidu, K. Newman et al., Situation-based survey of avian influenza viruses in possible " bridge " species of wild and domestic birds in Nigeria, Influenza Res Treat, vol.2012, p.567601, 2012.

A. Barin, F. Arabkhazaeli, S. Rahbari, and S. Madani, , as a possible mechanical vector of Newcastle disease virus in the laboratory and field, Medical and Veterinary Entomology, vol.38, issue.1, pp.88-90, 2010.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-2915.2009.00859.x

D. Houston and J. Cooper, THE DIGESTIVE TRACT OF THE WHITEBACK GRIFFON VULTURE AND ITS ROLE IN DISEASE TRANSMISSION AMONG WILD UNGULATES, Journal of Wildlife Diseases, vol.11, issue.3, pp.306-313, 1975.
DOI : 10.7589/0090-3558-11.3.306

J. Gonzalez, X. Pourrut, and E. Leroy, Ebolavirus and other filoviruses Wildlife and Emerging Zoonotic Diseases: The biology, circumstances and consequences of cross-species transmission, 2007.

A. Caron, V. Grosbois, E. Etter, and M. De-garine-wichatitsky, Bridge hosts for avian influenza viruses at the wildlife/domestic interface: An eco-epidemiological framework implemented in southern Africa, Preventive Veterinary Medicine, vol.117, issue.3-4, pp.590-600, 2014.
DOI : 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2014.09.014

B. Olsen, V. Munster, A. Wallensten, J. Waldenstrom, A. Osterhaus et al., Global Patterns of Influenza A Virus in Wild Birds, Science, vol.312, issue.5772, pp.384-388, 2006.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1122438

A. Caron, N. Gaidet, M. De-garine-wichatitsky, S. Morand, and E. Cameron, Evolutionary biology, community ecology and avian influenza research, Infection, Genetics and Evolution, vol.9, issue.2, pp.298-303, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.meegid.2008.12.001
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00528649

G. Cumming, A. Caron, C. Abolnik, G. Cattoli, L. Bruinzeel et al., The Ecology of Influenza A Viruses in Wild Birds in Southern Africa, EcoHealth, vol.13, issue.1, pp.4-13, 2011.
DOI : 10.1007/s10393-011-0684-z

J. Brown, M. Luttrell, R. Berghaus, W. Kistler, S. Keeler et al., PREVALENCE OF ANTIBODIES TO TYPE A INFLUENZA VIRUS IN WILD AVIAN SPECIES USING TWO SEROLOGIC ASSAYS, Journal of Wildlife Diseases, vol.46, issue.3, pp.896-911, 2010.
DOI : 10.7589/0090-3558-46.3.896

J. Brown, D. Stallknecht, R. Berghaus, M. Luttrell, K. Velek et al., Evaluation of a Commercial Blocking Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay To Detect Avian Influenza Virus Antibodies in Multiple Experimentally Infected Avian Species, Clinical and Vaccine Immunology, vol.16, issue.6, pp.824-829, 2009.
DOI : 10.1128/CVI.00084-09

S. Krauss, D. Walker, S. Pryor, L. Niles, L. Chenghong et al., Influenza A Viruses of Migrating Wild Aquatic Birds in North America, Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases, vol.4, issue.3, pp.177-189, 2004.
DOI : 10.1089/vbz.2004.4.177

E. Baumeister, G. Leotta, A. Pontoriero, A. Campos, D. Montalti et al., Serological evidences of influenza A virus infection in Antarctica migratory birds, International Congress Series, vol.1263, pp.737-740, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/j.ics.2004.02.099

V. Munster, C. Baas, P. Lexmond, J. Waldenstrom, A. Wallensten et al., Spatial, Temporal, and Species Variation in Prevalence of Influenza A Viruses in Wild Migratory Birds, PLoS Pathogens, vol.33, issue.5, p.61, 2007.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.ppat.0030061.st002

D. Arsnoe, H. Ip, and J. Owen, Influence of Body Condition on Influenza A Virus Infection in Mallard Ducks: Experimental Infection Data, PLoS ONE, vol.41, issue.8, p.22633, 2011.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0022633.t002

J. Hall, S. Krauss, J. Franson, J. Teslaa, S. Nashold et al., Avian influenza in shorebirds: experimental infection of ruddy turnstones (Arenaria interpres) with avian influenza virus, Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses, vol.4, issue.1, pp.85-92, 2013.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1750-2659.2012.00358.x

J. Brown, D. Stallknecht, and D. Swayne, Experimental Infection of Swans and Geese with Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus (H5N1) of Asian Lineage, Emerging Infectious Diseases, vol.14, issue.1, pp.136-142, 2008.
DOI : 10.3201/eid1401.070740

D. Alexander, G. Parsons, and R. Manvell, Experimental assessment of the pathogenicity of eight avian influenza a viruses of H5 subtype for chickens, turkeys, ducks and quail, Avian Pathology, vol.47, issue.4, pp.647-662, 1986.
DOI : 10.2307/1590708

J. Brown, R. Poulson, D. Carter, C. Lebarbenchon, and D. Stallknecht, Infectivity of Avian Influenza Virus-Positive Field Samples for Mallards: What Do Our Diagnostic Results Mean?, Journal of Wildlife Diseases, vol.49, issue.1, pp.180-185, 2013.
DOI : 10.7589/2011-11-322

N. Gaidet, A. Caron, J. Cappelle, G. Cumming, G. Balanca et al., Understanding the ecological drivers of avian influenza virus infection in wildfowl: a continental-scale study across Africa, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.26, issue.35, pp.1131-1141, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.06.027

T. Burns, C. Ribble, C. Stephen, D. Kelton, L. Toews et al., Use of observed wild bird activity on poultry farms and a literature review to target species as high priority for avian influenza testing in 2 regions of Canada, Can Vet J, vol.53, pp.158-166, 2012.

J. Cappelle, N. Gaidet, S. Iverson, J. Takekawa, S. Newman et al., Characterizing the interface between wild ducks and poultry to evaluate the potential of transmission of avian pathogens, International Journal of Health Geographics, vol.10, issue.1, p.60, 2011.
DOI : 10.1177/001316446002000104

T. Oatley, P. , and R. , A comparative analysis of movements of southern African waterfowl (Anatidae), based on ringing recoveries, S Afr J Wildl Res, vol.16, pp.1-6, 1986.

A. Caron, M. De-garine-wichatitsky, N. Gaidet, N. Chiweshe, and G. Cumming, Estimating Dynamic Risk Factors for Pathogen Transmission Using Community-Level Bird Census Data at the Wildlife/Domestic Interface, Ecology and Society, vol.15, issue.3, p.25, 2010.
DOI : 10.5751/ES-03547-150325

G. Cumming, P. Hockey, L. Bruinzeel, D. Plessis, and M. , Wild Bird Movements and Avian Influenza Risk Mapping in Southern Africa, Ecology and Society, vol.13, issue.2, p.26, 2008.
DOI : 10.5751/ES-02536-130226

J. Veen, J. Brouwer, P. Atkinson, C. Bilgin, J. Blew et al., Ornithological data relevant to the spread of Avian Influenza in Europe (phase2): further identification and first field assessment of Higher Risk Species, 2007.

E. Leroy, B. Kumulungui, X. Pourrut, P. Rouquet, A. Hassanin et al., Fruit bats as reservoirs of Ebola virus, Nature, vol.357, issue.7068, pp.575-576, 2005.
DOI : 10.1038/438575a

C. Calisher, J. Childs, H. Field, K. Holmes, and T. Schountz, Bats: Important Reservoir Hosts of Emerging Viruses, Clinical Microbiology Reviews, vol.19, issue.3, pp.531-545, 2006.
DOI : 10.1128/CMR.00017-06

H. Weingartl, C. Embury-hyatt, C. Nfon, A. Leung, G. Smith et al., Transmission of Ebola virus from pigs to non-human primates, Scientific Reports, vol.2, p.811, 2012.
DOI : 10.1038/srep00811

L. Macgregor, G. Cumming, and P. Hockey, Understanding pathogen transmission dynamics in waterbird communities: At what scale should interactions be studied?, South African Journal of Science, vol.107, issue.9/10, pp.56-65, 2011.
DOI : 10.4102/sajs.v107i9/10.283

L. Campitelli, D. Martino, A. Spagnolo, D. Smith, G. et al., Molecular analysis of avian H7 influenza viruses circulating in Eurasia in 1999-2005: detection of multiple reassortant virus genotypes, Journal of General Virology, vol.89, issue.1, pp.48-59, 1999.
DOI : 10.1099/vir.0.83111-0

J. Jones, S. Sonnberg, Z. Kocer, K. Shanmuganatham, P. Seiler et al., Possible Role of Songbirds and Parakeets in Transmission of Influenza A(H7N9) Virus to Humans, Emerging Infectious Diseases, vol.20, issue.3, pp.380-385, 2014.
DOI : 10.3201/eid2003.131271

D. Streicker, A. Fenton, A. Pedersen, and R. Ostfeld, Differential sources of host species heterogeneity influence the transmission and control of multihost parasites, Ecology Letters, vol.94, issue.8, pp.975-984, 2013.
DOI : 10.1111/ele.12122

M. Previtali, R. Ostfeld, F. Keesing, A. Jolles, R. Hanselmann et al., Relationship between pace of life and immune responses in wild rodents, Oikos, vol.150, issue.9, pp.1483-1492, 2012.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1600-0706.2012.020215.x

M. Begon, C. Townsend, and J. Harper, Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems -, 4th edn, 2006.

A. Kilpatrick, L. Kramer, S. Campbell, E. Alleyne, A. Dobson et al., West Nile Virus Risk Assessment and the Bridge Vector Paradigm, Emerging Infectious Diseases, vol.11, issue.3, pp.425-429, 2005.
DOI : 10.3201/eid1103.040364

G. Hamer, U. Kitron, J. Brawn, S. Loss, M. Ruiz et al., (Diptera: Culicidae): A Bridge Vector of West Nile Virus to Humans, Journal of Medical Entomology, vol.45, issue.1, pp.125-128, 2008.
DOI : 10.1093/jmedent/45.1.125

S. Olson, J. Parmley, C. Soos, M. Gilbert, N. Latorre-margalef et al., Sampling Strategies and Biodiversity of Influenza A Subtypes in Wild Birds, PLoS ONE, vol.50, issue.3, p.90826, 2014.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0090826.s011

C. Lebarbenchon, R. Poulson, K. Shannon, J. Slagter, M. Slusher et al., Isolation of influenza A viruses from wild ducks and feathers in Minnesota, 2010.

R. Kock, S. Ososfsky, S. Cleaveland, W. Karesh, M. Kock et al., A Review of Current Knowledge, Conservation and Development Interventions at the Wildlife/Livestock Interface: Implications for Wildlife, Livestock and Human Health, 2005.

D. Morens and A. Fauci, Emerging Infectious Diseases: Threats to Human Health and Global Stability, PLoS Pathogens, vol.380, issue.7, p.1003467, 2013.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003467.t001

M. Woolhouse and S. Gowtage-sequeria, Host Range and Emerging and Reemerging Pathogens, Emerging Infectious Diseases, vol.11, issue.12, pp.1842-1847, 2005.
DOI : 10.3201/eid1112.050997

E. Holmes and B. Grenfell, Discovering the Phylodynamics of RNA Viruses, PLoS Computational Biology, vol.72, issue.9, p.1000505, 2009.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000505.g003

A. Caron, C. Abolnik, J. Mundava, N. Gaidet, C. Burger et al., Persistence of Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus in Waterfowl in a Southern African Ecosystem, EcoHealth, vol.56, issue.1, pp.109-115, 2011.
DOI : 10.1007/s10393-010-0356-4

N. Gaidet, T. Dodman, A. Caron, G. Balança, S. Desvaux et al., Avian Influenza Viruses in Water Birds, Africa1, Emerging Infectious Diseases, vol.13, issue.4, pp.626-629, 2007.
DOI : 10.3201/eid1304.061011

N. Gaidet, O. E. Mamy, A. Cappelle, J. Caron, A. Cumming et al., Investigating Avian Influenza Infection Hotspots in Old-World Shorebirds, PLoS ONE, vol.7, issue.9, p.46049, 2012.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0046049.s007

M. Aly, A. Arafa, W. Kilany, A. Sleim, and M. Hassan, Isolation of a Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus (H7N7) from a Black Kite (Milvus migrans) in Egypt in 2005, Avian Diseases, vol.54, issue.s1, pp.457-460, 2005.
DOI : 10.1637/8719-032109-ResNote.1

J. Cappelle, R. Servan-de-almeida, B. Fofana, M. Dakouo, G. Balança et al., Circulation of avian influenza viruses in wild birds in Inner Niger Delta, Mali, Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses, vol.276, issue.4, pp.240-244, 2012.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1750-2659.2011.00314.x

I. Dohoo, S. Martin, and H. Stryhn, Veterinary Epidemiology Research, 2009.

E. Simulundu, A. Mweene, D. Tomabechi, B. Hang-'ombe, A. Ishii et al., Characterization of H3N6 avian influenza virus isolated from a wild white pelican in Zambia, Archives of Virology, vol.56, issue.1???2, pp.1517-1522, 2009.
DOI : 10.1007/s00705-009-0467-9

C. Snoeck, A. Adeyanju, D. Landtsheer, S. Ottosson, U. Manu et al., Reassortant low-pathogenic avian influenza H5N2 viruses in African wild birds, Journal of General Virology, vol.92, issue.5, pp.1172-1183, 2011.
DOI : 10.1099/vir.0.029728-0

. Influenza-research-database, http://www.fludb.org/brc/influenza_ surveillanceRecord_search.do?method=ShowCleanSearch& decorator=influenza, 2013.