P. M. Agapow and A. Burt, Indices of multilocus linkage disequilibrium, Molecular Ecology Notes, vol.90, issue.1-2, pp.101-93, 2001.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.93.2.770

. Coelho, A haploid system of sex determination in the brown alga Ectocarpus sp, Curr Biol, vol.97, issue.24, pp.1945-1957, 2014.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01132642

S. Arnaud-haond and K. Belkhir, genclone: a computer program to analyse genotypic data, test for clonality and describe spatial clonal organization, Molecular Ecology Notes, vol.106, issue.1, pp.15-17, 2007.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1471-8286.2006.01522.x

J. R. Baker and L. V. Evans, The ship fouling algaEctocarpus, Protoplasma, vol.9, issue.1, pp.1-13, 1973.
DOI : 10.1007/BF01287289

G. Bell, The evolution of the life cycle of brown seaweeds, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, vol.60, issue.1, pp.21-38, 1997.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1095-8312.1997.tb01481.x

G. Berthold, Die geschlechtliche Fortpflanzung der eigentlichen Phaeosporeen, 1881.

J. H. Bothwell, D. Marie, A. F. Peters, J. M. Cock, and S. M. Coelho, Role of endoreduplication 106 and apomeiosis during parthenogenetic reproduction in the model brown alga Ectocarpus, New, vol.107, 2010.

F. O. Bower, The origin of a land flora: a theory based upon the facts of alternation, p.109, 1908.

L. T. Carney and M. S. Edwards, Cryptic Processes in the Sea: A Review of Delayed Development in theMicroscopic Life Stages of Marine Macroalgae, ALGAE, vol.21, issue.2, pp.161-168, 2006.
DOI : 10.4490/ALGAE.2006.21.2.161

J. M. Cock, S. M. Coelho, C. Brownlee, and A. R. Taylor, The Ectocarpus genome sequence: insights into brown algal biology and the evolutionary diversity of the eukaryotes, New Phytologist, vol.21, issue.1, pp.1-302, 2010.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03454.x

J. M. Cock, O. Godfroy, N. Macaisne, A. F. Peters, and S. M. Coelho, Evolution and regulation of complex life cycles: a brown algal perspective, Current Opinion in Plant Biology, vol.17, pp.1-6, 2014.
DOI : 10.1016/j.pbi.2013.09.004

S. M. Coelho, O. Godfroy, A. Arun, G. L. Corguillé, A. F. Peters et al., OUROBOROS is 128 a master regulator of the gametophyte to sporophyte life cycle transition in the brown alga 129, 2011.

A. E. Coluccio, R. K. Rodriguez, M. J. Kernan, and A. M. Neiman, The Yeast Spore Wall Enables Spores to Survive Passage through the Digestive Tract of Drosophila, PLoS ONE, vol.15, issue.8, pp.2873-135, 2008.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0002873.t002

J. F. Crow and M. Kimura, Evolution in Sexual and Asexual Populations, The American Naturalist, vol.99, issue.909, pp.439-450, 1965.
DOI : 10.1086/282389

E. M. Cunningham, M. D. Guiry, and A. M. Breeman, Environmental regulation of development, life history and biogeography of Helminthora stackhousei (Rhodophyta) by daylength and temperature, Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, vol.171, issue.1, pp.1-21, 1993.
DOI : 10.1016/0022-0981(93)90136-C

C. Destombe, M. Valero, P. Vernet, and D. Couvet, What controls haploid-diploid ratio in the red alga, Gracilaria verrucosa?, Journal of Evolutionary Biology, vol.2, issue.5, pp.317-338, 1989.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1420-9101.1989.2050317.x

M. E. Dorken and C. G. Eckert, Severely reduced sexual reproduction in northern populations of a clonal plant, Decodonverticillatus (Lythraceae), Journal of Ecology, vol.85, issue.3, pp.339-350, 2001.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-2745.2001.00558.x

M. S. Edwards, THE ROLE OF ALTERNATE LIFE-HISTORY STAGES OF A MARINE MACROALGA: A SEED BANK ANALOGUE?, Ecology, vol.81, issue.9, pp.2404-2415, 2000.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00350030

J. Feldmann, Les probl??mes actuels de l'alternance de g??n??rations chez les Algues, Bulletin de la Soci??t?? Botanique de France, vol.58, issue.1, 1972.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1529-8817.1969.tb02569.x

J. Fierst, C. Terhorst, J. E. Kübler, and S. Dudgeon, FERTILIZATION SUCCESS CAN DRIVE PATTERNS OF PHASE DOMINANCE IN COMPLEX LIFE HISTORIES1, Journal of Phycology, vol.326, issue.327, pp.238-249, 2005.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2005.04024.x

M. Frada, I. Probert, M. J. Allen, W. H. Wilson, C. De et al., The " Cheshire Cat " escape 150 strategy of the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi in response to viral infection, Proc Natl Acad Sci, vol.151, 2008.

F. E. Fritsch, Studies in the comparative morphology of the algae II. The algal life-cycle, 1942.

F. E. Fritsch, Studies in the Comparative Morphology of the Algae1, Annals of Botany, vol.6, issue.3, pp.397-412, 1942.
DOI : 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aob.a088413

F. Halkett, J. Simon, and F. Balloux, Tackling the population genetics of clonal and partially clonal organisms, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol.20, issue.4, pp.194-201, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.tree.2005.01.001

M. E. Hay, The Functional Morphology of Turf-Forming Seaweeds: Persistence in Stressful Marine Habitats, Ecology, vol.62, issue.3, pp.739-750, 1981.
DOI : 10.2307/1937742

E. Samson, S. M. Corre, J. M. Coelho, and . Cock, A sequence-tagged genetic map for the 162 brown alga Ectocarpus siliculosus provides large-scale assembly of the genome sequence, New Phytol, vol.163, issue.188, pp.42-51, 2010.

J. S. Hughes and S. P. Otto, Ecology and the Evolution of Biphasic Life Cycles, The American Naturalist, vol.154, issue.3, pp.306-165, 1999.
DOI : 10.1086/303241

S. Immler and S. P. Otto, Driven Apart: The Evolution of Ploidy Differences between the Sexes under Antagonistic Selection, The American Naturalist, vol.183, issue.1, pp.96-107, 2014.
DOI : 10.1086/674025

C. D. Jenkins and M. Kirkpatrick, Deleterious Mutation and the Evolution of Genetic Life Cycles, Evolution, vol.49, issue.3, pp.512-520, 1995.
DOI : 10.2307/2410275

T. Klinger, The persistence of haplodiploidy in algae, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol.8, issue.7, pp.256-258, 1993.
DOI : 10.1016/0169-5347(93)90202-Z

M. Knight, XV.???Studies in the Ectocarpace??. II. The Life-history and Cytology of Ectocarpus siliculosus, Dillw, Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol.x, issue.02, pp.307-332, 1930.
DOI : 10.1017/S0080456800013223

M. M. Littler and D. S. Littler, Heteromorphic life-history strategies in the brown alga 174, 1983.

A. J. Lotka, Elements of physical biology, p.176, 1925.

J. Lubchenco and J. Cubit, Heteromorphic Life Histories of Certain Marine Algae as Adaptations to Variations in Herbivory, Ecology, vol.61, issue.3, pp.676-687, 1980.
DOI : 10.2307/1937433

B. K. Mable and S. P. Otto, The evolution of life cycles with haploid and diploid phases, BioEssays, vol.92, issue.261, p.179, 1998.
DOI : 10.1002/(SICI)1521-1878(199806)20:6<453::AID-BIES3>3.0.CO;2-N

S. Mauger, L. Couceiro, and M. Valero, A simple and cost-effective method to synthesize an 181 internal size standard amenable to use with a 5-dye system, Prime Res Biotechnol, vol.2, pp.40-46, 2012.

D. G. Müller, Die Temperaturabhängigkeit der Sporangienbildung bei Ectocarpus siliculosus von 185, 1963.

D. G. Müller, Life-cycle of Ectocarpus siliculosus from Naples, Italy, Nature, vol.203, issue.4952, pp.1402-1402, 1964.
DOI : 10.1038/2031402a0

D. G. Müller, Relative sexuality in Ectocarpus siliculosus. A scientific error, Arch Microbiol, vol.109, pp.190-89, 1976.

D. G. Müller, (Phaeophyta), British Phycological Journal, vol.83, issue.2, pp.131-136, 0192.
DOI : 10.1080/00071617700650141

H. A. Orr and S. P. Otto, Does diploidy increase the rate of adaptation?, Genetics, vol.136, pp.1475-194, 1994.

S. P. Otto, Mating systems and the evolutionary transition between haploidy and diploidy, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, vol.57, issue.3, 0196.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1095-8312.1996.tb00309.x

S. P. Otto and A. C. Gerstein, The evolution of haploidy and diploidy, Current Biology, vol.18, issue.24, pp.1121-198, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.cub.2008.09.039

S. P. Otto and D. B. Goldstein, Recombination and the evolution of diploidy, Genetics, vol.131, pp.745-200, 1992.

G. F. Papenfuss, NOTE ON THE LIFE-CYCLE OF ECTOCARPUS SILICULOSUS DILLW, Science, vol.77, issue.1999, pp.390-391, 1933.
DOI : 10.1126/science.77.1999.390

G. F. Papenfuss, Alternation of Generations in Ectocarpus siliculosus, Botanical Gazette, vol.96, issue.3, pp.421-446, 1935.
DOI : 10.1086/334493

C. Paquin and J. Adams, Frequency of fixation of adaptive mutations is higher in evolving diploid than haploid yeast populations, Nature, vol.83, issue.5908, pp.495-500, 1983.
DOI : 10.1038/302495a0

R. Peakall and P. E. Smouse, genalex 6: genetic analysis in Excel. Population genetic software for teaching and research, Molecular Ecology Notes, vol.35, issue.1, pp.288-295, 2006.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-2540.1999.00518.x

A. F. Peters, D. Marie, D. Scornet, B. Kloareg, and M. J. Cock, Proposal of Ectocarpus siliculosus 217 (Ectocarpales, Phaeophyceae) as a model organism for brown algal genetics and genomics, J Phycol, vol.218, issue.40, pp.1079-1088, 2004.

A. F. Peters and M. E. Ramírez, Molecular phylogeny of small brown algae, with special 220 reference to the systematic position of Caepidium antarcticum, 2001.

M. Cock, Life-cycle-generation-specific developmental processes are modified in the 224, 2008.

S. M. Boo, Reinstatement of Ectocarpus crouaniorum Thuret in Le Jolis as a third common 227 species of Ectocarpus (Ectocarpales, Phaeophyceae) in Western Europe, and its phenology at Roscoff, p.228, 2010.

M. Polifrone, M. C. Gil-rodríguez, S. Domínguez-Álvarez, M. Stroobant, and M. A. Viera-rodríguez, Reproductive phenology of three species of Gelidiales (Rhodophyta) in two macroalgal communities from Tenerife (Atlantic Ocean, Canary Islands, Spain), Anales del Jard??n Bot??nico de Madrid, vol.69, issue.2, pp.247-232, 2012.
DOI : 10.3989/ajbm.2325

M. Raymond and F. Rousset, GENEPOP (Version 1.2): Population Genetics Software for Exact Tests and Ecumenicism, Journal of Heredity, vol.86, issue.3, pp.248-249, 1995.
DOI : 10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a111573
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00186383

W. R. Rice, Analyzing Tables of Statistical Tests, Evolution, vol.43, issue.1, pp.223-225, 1989.
DOI : 10.2307/2409177

G. Russell and O. P. Morris, Copper Tolerance in the Marine Fouling Alga Ectocarpus siliculosus, Nature, vol.11, issue.5268, p.237, 1970.
DOI : 10.1038/228288a0

C. J. Slocum, Differential susceptibility to grazers in two phases of an intertidal alga, p.239, 1980.

G. L. Stebbins and G. J. Hill, Did Multicellular Plants Invade the Land?, The American Naturalist, vol.115, issue.3, pp.342-353, 1980.
DOI : 10.1086/283565

P. R. Taylor and M. E. Hay, Functional morphology of intertidal seaweeds; adaptive significance of aggregate vs. solitary forms, Marine Ecology Progress Series, vol.18, pp.295-302, 1984.
DOI : 10.3354/meps018295

C. S. Thornber, Functional properties of the isomorphic biphasic algal life cycle, Integrative and Comparative Biology, vol.46, issue.5, 2006.
DOI : 10.1093/icb/icl018

M. Valero, S. Richerd, V. Perrot, and C. Destombe, Evolution of alternation of haploid and diploid phases in life cycles, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol.7, issue.1, pp.25-29, 1992.
DOI : 10.1016/0169-5347(92)90195-H

C. Van-oosterhout, W. F. Hutchinson, D. P. Wills, and P. Shipley, micro-checker: software for identifying and correcting genotyping errors in microsatellite data, Molecular Ecology Notes, vol.8, issue.3, pp.535-538, 2004.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-294x.1998.00477.x

A. Vergés, N. A. Paul, and P. D. Steinberg, SEX AND LIFE-HISTORY STAGE ALTER HERBIVORE RESPONSES TO A CHEMICALLY DEFENDED RED ALGA, Ecology, vol.25, issue.5, pp.1334-1343, 2008.
DOI : 10.1111/j.0022-3646.1990.00232.x

V. Volterra, Fluctuations in the Abundance of a Species considered Mathematically, Nature, vol.118, issue.2972, pp.558-560, 1926.
DOI : 10.1038/118558a0

M. F. Willson, On the Evolution of Complex Life Cycles in Plants: A Review and an Ecological Perspective, Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, vol.68, issue.2, pp.275-300, 1981.
DOI : 10.2307/2398799

J. R. Zupan and J. A. West, PHOTOSYNTHETIC RESPONSES TO LIGHT AND TEMPERATURE OF THE HETEROMORPHIC MARINE ALGA MASTOCARPUS PAPILLATUS (RHODOPHYTA)1, Journal of Phycology, vol.26, issue.2, pp.232-239, 1990.
DOI : 10.1111/j.0022-3646.1990.00232.x