J. Altmann, Observational Study of Behavior: Sampling Methods, Behaviour, vol.49, issue.3, pp.227-266, 1974.
DOI : 10.1163/156853974X00534

J. R. Anderson, Social stimuli and social rewards in primate learning and cognition, Behavioural Processes, vol.42, issue.2-3, pp.159-175, 1998.
DOI : 10.1016/S0376-6357(97)00074-0

J. L. Armony and R. J. Dolan, Modulation of spatial attention by fear-conditioned stimuli: an event-related fMRI study, Neuropsychologia, vol.40, issue.7, pp.817-826, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0028-3932(01)00178-6

P. Baragli, A. Gazzano, F. Marteli, and C. Sighieri, How Do Horses Appraise Humans' Actions? A Brief Note over a Practical Way to Assess Stimulus Perception, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, vol.29, issue.10, pp.739-742, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jevs.2009.08.006

P. Baragli, C. Mariti, L. Petri, F. De-giorgio, and C. Sighieri, Does attention make the difference? Horses??? response to human stimulus after 2 different training strategies, Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, vol.6, issue.1, pp.31-38, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jveb.2010.08.020

M. Basile, S. Boivin, A. Boutin, C. Blois-heulin, M. Hausberger et al., Socially dependent auditory laterality in domestic horses (Equus caballus), Animal Cognition, vol.44, issue.1, pp.611-619, 2009.
DOI : 10.1080/09524622.1991.9753156
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01229444

M. Behrmann, J. J. Geng, and S. Shomstein, Parietal cortex and attention, Current Opinion in Neurobiology, vol.14, issue.2, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/j.conb.2004.03.012

A. Bertin, M. Hausberger, L. Henry, R. , and M. , Adult and peer influences on starling song development, Developmental Psychobiology, vol.39, issue.4, pp.362-374, 2007.
DOI : 10.1017/CBO9780511758843.006
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01309222

C. Blois-heulin, Variability in Social Visual Attention in the Red-Capped Mangabey <i>(Cercocebus torquatus torquatus)</i> and the Grey-Cheeked Mangabey <i>(Cercocebus albigena albigena)</i>, Folia Primatologica, vol.70, issue.5, pp.264-268, 1999.
DOI : 10.1159/000021705

L. Boyd, D. Carbonaro, and K. Houpt, The 24-hour time budget of Przewalski horses, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, vol.21, issue.1-2, pp.5-17, 1988.
DOI : 10.1016/0168-1591(88)90098-6

J. Call, J. Bräuer, J. Kaminski, and M. Tomasello, Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) are sensitive to the attentional state of humans., Journal of Comparative Psychology, vol.117, issue.3, pp.257-263, 2003.
DOI : 10.1037/0735-7036.117.3.257

M. R. Chance and C. Jolly, Social Groups of Monkeys, Apes and Men, 1970.

P. Chance, The rewards of learning, Phi Delta Kappan, vol.73, pp.200-207, 1992.

H. Cousillas, I. George, L. Henry, J. Richard, and M. Hausberger, Linking Social and Vocal Brains: Could Social Segregation Prevent a Proper Development of a Central Auditory Area in a Female Songbird?, PLoS ONE, vol.488, issue.1002, 2008.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0002194.g004
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01303558

H. Cousillas, I. George, M. Mathelier, J. Richard, L. Henry et al., Social experience influences the development of a central auditory area, Naturwissenschaften, vol.4, issue.12, pp.588-596, 2006.
DOI : 10.1017/CBO9780511758843
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01303561

E. Davids, K. Zhang, F. I. Tarazi, and R. J. Baldessarini, Animal models of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, Brain Research Reviews, vol.42, issue.1, pp.1-21, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0165-0173(02)00274-6

N. J. Emery, The eyes have it: the neuroethology, function and evolution of social gaze, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, vol.24, issue.6, pp.581-604, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S0149-7634(00)00025-7

C. Feh, Relationship and communication in socially natural horse herds, The Domestic Horse, pp.83-93, 2005.

C. Feh, D. Mazières, and J. , Grooming at a preferred site reduces heart rate in horses, Animal Behaviour, vol.46, issue.6, 1993.
DOI : 10.1006/anbe.1993.1309

C. Fureix, P. Jego, C. Sankey, and M. Hausberger, How horses (Equus caballus) see the world: humans as significant ???objects???, Animal Cognition, vol.40, issue.1, pp.643-654, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2005.02.002
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01354784

M. Giurfa, Cognition with few neurons: higher-order learning in insects, Trends in Neurosciences, vol.36, issue.5, pp.285-294, 2013.
DOI : 10.1016/j.tins.2012.12.011

Y. Hattori, H. Kuroshima, and K. Fujita, I know you are not looking at me: capuchin monkeys??? (Cebus apella) sensitivity to human attentional states, Animal Cognition, vol.73, issue.2, pp.141-148, 2007.
DOI : 10.1007/s10071-006-0049-0

M. Hausberger and C. Muller, A brief note on some possible factors involved in the reactions of horses to humans, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, vol.76, issue.4, pp.339-344, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0168-1591(02)00016-3
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01319157

M. Hausberger, H. Roche, S. Henry, and E. K. Visser, A review of the human???horse relationship, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, vol.109, issue.1, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.applanim.2007.04.015
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01319144

S. Henry, D. Hemery, M. Richard, and M. Hausberger, Human???mare relationships and behaviour of foals toward humans, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, vol.93, issue.3-4, pp.341-362, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.applanim.2005.01.008
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01319154

S. Henry, M. Richard-yris, and M. Hausberger, Influence of various early human???foal interferences on subsequent human???foal relationship, Developmental Psychobiology, vol.35, issue.8, pp.712-718, 2006.
DOI : 10.1007/978-1-4613-3150-6
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01319152

S. Henry, M. Richard-yris, S. Tordjman, and M. Hausberger, Neonatal Handling Affects Durably Bonding and Social Development, PLoS ONE, vol.49, issue.4, 2009.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0005216.t001
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01319140

R. A. Hinde, Towards Understanding Relationships, 1979.

L. Horn, Z. Virányi, Á. Miklósi, L. Huber, and F. And-range, Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) flexibly adjust their human-directed behavior to the actions of their human partners in a problem situation, Animal Cognition, vol.11, issue.1, pp.57-71, 2012.
DOI : 10.1007/s10071-007-0127-y

T. Jezierski, Z. Jaworski, and A. Górecka, Effects of handling on behaviour and heart rate in Konik horses: comparison of stable and forest reared youngstock, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, vol.62, issue.1, pp.1-11, 1999.
DOI : 10.1016/S0168-1591(98)00209-3

J. Kaminski, J. Call, and M. Tomasello, Body orientation and face orientation: two factors controlling apes? begging behavior from humans, Animal Cognition, vol.35, issue.4, pp.216-223, 2004.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1540-5834.1996.tb00491.x

L. J. Keeling, L. Jonare, and L. Lanneborn, Investigating horse???human interactions: The effect of a nervous human, The Veterinary Journal, vol.181, issue.1, pp.70-71, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.tvjl.2009.03.013

R. D. Kirkden and E. A. Pajor, Using preference, motivation and aversion tests to ask scientific questions about animals??? feelings, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, vol.100, issue.1-2, pp.29-47, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.applanim.2006.04.009

R. T. Knight, M. F. Grabowecky, and D. Scabini, Role of human prefrontal cortex in attention control, Adv. Neurol, vol.66, pp.21-34, 1995.

A. Krapp, Interest, motivation and learning: An educational-psychological perspective, European Journal of Psychology of Education, vol.24, issue.1, pp.23-40, 1999.
DOI : 10.3102/00346543060004549

K. Krueger, B. Flauger, K. Farmer, M. , and K. , Horses (Equus caballus) use human local enhancement cues and adjust to human attention, Animal Cognition, vol.35, issue.2, pp.187-201, 2011.
DOI : 10.2746/042516403776114108

J. K. Kruschke, Attention in Learning, Current Directions in Psychological Science, vol.116, issue.5, pp.171-175, 2003.
DOI : 10.1162/089892900561931

J. Lampe, A. , and J. , Cross-modal recognition of human individuals in domestic horses (Equus caballus), Animal Cognition, vol.56, issue.4, pp.623-630, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/S0168-1591(97)00095-6

. Horse, Equus caballus) whinnies: a source of social information, Anim. Cogn, vol.12, pp.693-704

C. Lesimple, C. Sankey, M. A. Richard, and M. Hausberger, Do Horses Expect Humans to Solve Their Problems?, Frontiers in Psychology, vol.3, 2012.
DOI : 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00306
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01020427

C. D. Libera, C. , and L. , Visual Selective Attention and the Effects of Monetary Rewards, Psychological Science, vol.8, issue.3, pp.222-227, 2006.
DOI : 10.1037/10187-012

A. Maille, L. Engelhart, M. Bourjade, and C. Blois-heulin, To Beg, or Not to Beg? That Is the Question: Mangabeys Modify Their Production of Requesting Gestures in Response to Human???s Attentional States, PLoS ONE, vol.15, issue.3, 2012.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0041197.s001

P. Marler, Communication in monkeys and apes, pp.544-584, 1965.

K. Maros, M. Gácsi, and Á. Miklósi, Comprehension of human pointing gestures in horses (Equus caballus), Animal Cognition, vol.114, issue.2, pp.457-466, 2008.
DOI : 10.5962/bhl.title.56164

H. S. Maxime, RVAideMemoire: Diverse Basic Statistical and Graphical Functions. R Package Version 0.9-27 Available online at How to rehabilitate horses with injection shyness (or any procedure non-compliance) AEEP Proc, pp.168-172, 2000.

P. D. Mcgreevy, A. N. Mclean, J. Mckinley, and T. D. Sambrook, Equitation Science Use of human-given cues by domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) and horses (Equus caballus), Anim. Cogn, vol.3, pp.13-22, 1007.

J. Micheletta and B. M. Waller, Friendship affects gaze following in a tolerant species of macaque, Macaca nigra, Animal Behaviour, vol.83, issue.2, pp.459-467, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.11.018

Á. Miklósi and K. Soproni, A comparative analysis of animals' understanding of the human pointing gesture, Animal Cognition, vol.7, issue.2, pp.81-93, 2006.
DOI : 10.3758/BF03199007

D. S. Mills and S. M. Mcdonnell, The Domestic Horse: The Origins, Development and Management of its Behaviour, 2005.

K. Nebel, H. Wiese, P. Stude, A. De-greiff, H. Diener et al., On the neural basis of focused and divided attention, Cognitive Brain Research, vol.25, issue.3, pp.760-776, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.09.011

R. D. Oades and G. Sartory, The problems of inattention: methods and interpretations, Behav. Brain Res, vol.8897, pp.3-10, 1997.

M. I. Posner, Y. Cohen, and R. D. Rafal, Neural Systems Control of Spatial Orienting, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.298, issue.1089, pp.187-1980081, 1982.
DOI : 10.1098/rstb.1982.0081

M. I. Posner, C. R. Snyder, D. , and B. J. , Attention and the detection of signals., Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, vol.109, issue.2, 1980.
DOI : 10.1037/0096-3445.109.2.160

L. Proops and K. Mccomb, Attributing attention: the use of human-given cues by domestic horses (Equus caballus), Animal Cognition, vol.49, issue.2, pp.197-205, 2010.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1439-0310.1979.tb00299.x

L. Proops and K. Mccomb, Cross-modal individual recognition in domestic horses (Equus caballus) extends to familiar humans, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.31, issue.5, pp.3131-3138, 2012.
DOI : 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb03837.x
URL : http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/royprsb/279/1741/3131.full.pdf

L. Proops, K. Mccomb, R. , and D. , Cross-modal individual recognition in domestic horses (Equus caballus), Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.85, issue.2, pp.947-951, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.applanim.2003.09.009
URL : http://www.pnas.org/content/106/3/947.full.pdf

H. C. Quay, Inhibition and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, vol.25, issue.1, pp.7-13, 1997.
DOI : 10.1023/A:1025799122529

F. Range, L. Horn, T. Bugnyar, G. K. Gajdon, and L. Huber, Social attention in keas, dogs, and human children, Animal Cognition, vol.335, issue.1, pp.181-192, 2009.
DOI : 10.1080/08927014.1993.9523120
URL : https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4415148/pdf

F. Range and L. Huber, Attention in common marmosets: implications for social-learning experiments, Animal Behaviour, vol.73, issue.6, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.07.015

J. Raymond, Interactions of attention, emotion and motivation, Progress in Brain Research, pp.293-308, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/S0079-6123(09)17617-3

R. Development and C. Team, R: A Language And Environment For Statistical Computing Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing Available online at, 2011.

C. Sankey, S. Henry, N. André, M. Richard-yris, and M. Hausberger, Do Horses Have a Concept of Person?, PLoS ONE, vol.71, issue.3, 2011.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0018331.t001
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01022089

C. Sankey, S. Henry, A. Górecka-bruzda, M. Richard-yris, and M. Hausberger, The Way to a Man's Heart Is through His Stomach: What about Horses?, PLoS ONE, vol.21, issue.3, 2010.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0015446.g002

C. Sankey, M. Richard-yris, H. Leroy, S. Henry, and M. Hausberger, Positive interactions lead to lasting positive memories in horses, Equus caballus, Animal Behaviour, vol.79, issue.4, pp.869-875, 2010.
DOI : 10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.12.037
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01022338

C. Sankey, M. Richard-yris, S. Henry, C. Fureix, F. Nassur et al., Reinforcement as a mediator of the perception of humans by horses (Equus caballus), Animal Cognition, vol.46, issue.3, pp.753-764, 2010.
DOI : 10.2527/2000.7851219x
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01022336

W. Schultz, Neural coding of basic reward terms of animal learning theory, game theory, microeconomics and behavioural ecology, Current Opinion in Neurobiology, vol.14, issue.2, pp.139-147, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/j.conb.2004.03.017

C. Schwab and L. Huber, Obey or Not Obey? Dogs (Canis familiaris) Behave Differently in Response to Attentional States of Their Owners., Journal of Comparative Psychology, vol.120, issue.3, pp.169-175, 2006.
DOI : 10.1037/0735-7036.120.3.169

S. Siegel and N. Castellan, Non Parametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, 1988.

J. Spaethe, J. Tautz, C. , and L. , Do honeybees detect colour targets using serial or parallel visual search?, Journal of Experimental Biology, vol.209, issue.6, pp.987-993, 2006.
DOI : 10.1242/jeb.02124
URL : http://jeb.biologists.org/content/jexbio/209/6/987.full.pdf

K. M. Stormark and K. Hugdahl, Conditioned emotional cueing of spatial attentional shifts in a go/no-go RT task, International Journal of Psychophysiology, vol.27, issue.3, pp.241-248, 1997.
DOI : 10.1016/S0167-8760(97)00065-2

J. G. Taylor, F. , and N. F. , The interaction of attention and emotion, Neural Networks, vol.18, issue.4, pp.353-369, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neunet.2005.03.005

F. Toates, Motivational Systems, 1986.

J. Topál, A. Miklósi, C. , and V. , Dog-Human Relationship Affects Problem Solving Behavior in the Dog, Anthrozoos: A Multidisciplinary Journal of The Interactions of People & Animals, vol.10, issue.4, pp.214-224, 1997.
DOI : 10.2752/089279397787000987

A. M. Treisman, B. Van-swinderen, R. J. Greenspan, U. U. Von-borstel, I. J. Heatly-duncan et al., Strategies and models of selective attention Salience modulates 20?30 Hz brain activity in Drosophila Impact of riding in a coercively obtained Rollkur posture on welfare and fear of performance horses, Psychol. Rev. Nat. Neurosci. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci, vol.76, issue.116, pp.282-299, 1054.

S. Waiblinger, X. Boivin, V. Pedersen, M. Tosi, A. M. Janczak et al., Assessing the human???animal relationship in farmed species: A critical review, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, vol.101, issue.3-4, pp.185-242, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.applanim.2006.02.001

G. Waring, Horse Behavior, 2nd Edn, 2003.

R. M. Weigel, The Facial Expressions of the Brown Capuchin Monkey (Ceb Us Apella), Behaviour, vol.68, issue.3, pp.250-276, 1979.
DOI : 10.1163/156853979X00331

M. J. Xitco, J. D. Gory, and S. A. Ii, Dolphin pointing is linked to the attentional behavior of a receiver, Animal Cognition, vol.4, issue.4, pp.231-238, 2004.
DOI : 10.1007/s10071-004-0217-z

M. J. Xitco, J. D. Gory, and S. A. Kuczaj, Spontaneous pointing by bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), Animal Cognition, vol.4, issue.2, pp.115-123, 2001.
DOI : 10.1007/s100710100107

C. Rochais, S. Henry, C. Sankey, F. Nassur, A. Górecka-bruzda et al., Visual attention, an indicator of human-animal relationships? A study of domestic horses (Equus caballus), Frontiers in Psychology, vol.5, 2014.
DOI : 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00108
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01021472

©. Copyright, . Rochais, . Henry, . Sankey, . Nassur et al., This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms