A. Davaille and C. Jaupart, Thermal convection in lava lakes, Geophys. Res. Lett, vol.20, pp.1827-1830, 1993.

A. Davaille and C. Jaupart, Onset of thermal convection in fluids with temperature dependent viscosity: Application to the oceanic mantle, J. Geophys. Res, vol.99, 1994.

M. P. Doin and L. Fleitout, Thermal evolution of the oceanic lithosphere: An alternative view, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.1, issue.2, pp.121-136, 1996.

M. P. Doin, L. Fleitout, and D. Mckenzie, Geoid anomalies and the structure of continental and oceanic lithospheres, J. Geophys. Res, vol.101, pp.16119-16136, 1996.

M. P. Doin, L. Fleitout, and U. R. Christensen, Mantle convection and stability of depleted and undepleted continental lithosphere, J. Geophys. Res, vol.102, pp.2771-2788, 1997.

?. Doucour, C. M. , and P. Parrjar, Thermal diffusivity of the lithosphere derived from altimetry and bathymetry profiles across the southwest Indian ridge, Geophys. Res. Lett, vol.19, pp.1543-1546, 1992.

M. J. Drury, Heat flow and heat generation in the Churchill Province of the Canadian Shield and their paleotectonic significance, Tectonophysics, vol.115, pp.25-44, 1985.

M. J. Drury and A. E. Taylor, Some new measurements of heat flow in the Superior Province of the Canadian Shield, Can. J. Earth Sci, vol.2, pp.1486-1489, 1987.

R. V. Durrheim and W. D. Mooney, Archean and Proterozoic crustal evolution: Evidence from crustal seisinology, Geology, vol.19, pp.606-609, 1991.

K. E. Eade and W. F. Fahrig, Geochemical evolutionary trends of continental plates, A preliminary study of the Canadian Shield, Geol. Surv. Can. Bull, p.59, 1971.

P. C. England, E. R. Oxburg, and S. W. Richardson, Heat refraction in and around granites in north-east England, Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc, vol.62, pp.439-455, 1980.

L. Fleitout and D. A. Yuen, Secondary convection and the growth of the oceanic lithosphere, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter, vol.36, pp.181-212, 1984.

D. M. Fountain and M. H. Salisbury, Exposed cross-sections of the continental crust: Implications for crustal structure petrology, and evolution, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.56, pp.263-277, 1981.

D. M. Fountain, M. H. Salisbury, and K. P. Furlong, Heat production and thermal conductivity of rocks from the Pikwitonei-Sachigo continental cross section, central Manitoba: Implications for the thermal structure of Archean crust, Can. J. Earth Sci, vol.2, pp.1583-1594, 1987.

S. J. Galer, S. L. Goldstein, and R. K. O'nions, Limits on chemical and convective isolation in the Earth's interior, Chem. Geol, vol.75, pp.257-290, 1989.

D. A. Galson, Heat production in the Ivrea and Strona Ceneri zones, 1983.

D. Gibert and V. Courtillot, Thermal isostasy of the South Atlantic: A new approach, vol.17, pp.251-254, 1990.

A. Gliko and J. Mareschal, On the validity of the linear approximation to Stefan problems, Geophys. J. Int, vol.99, pp.801-809, 1989.

A. G. Green, B. Milkereit, A. Davidson, C. Spencer, D. R. Hutchinson et al., Crustal structure of the Grenville Front and Adjacent terranes, vol.16, pp.788-792, 1988.

L. Guillou and C. Jaupart, On the effect of continents on mantle convection, J. Geophys. Res, vol.100, pp.24217-24238, 1995.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00562385

L. Guillou, J. Mareschal, C. Jaupart, C. Gari?py, G. Bienfait et al., Heat flow gravity and structure of the Abitibi belt, Superior Province, Canada: Implications for mantle heat flow, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.122, pp.103-123, 1994.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00562389

L. Guillou-frottier, J. Mareschal, C. Jaupart, C. Gari?py, R. Lapointe et al., Heat flow variations in the Grenville Province, Canada, Earth Planet. $ci. Lett, vol.136, pp.447-460, 1995.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00562382

L. Guillou-frottier, C. Jaupart, J. Mareschal, C. Gari?py, G. Bienfait et al., High heat flow in the Thompson Belt of the Trans-Hudson Orogen, Canadian Shield, Geophys. Res. Lett, vol.23, pp.3027-3030, 1996.

M. Gurnis, Large-scale mantle convection and the aggregation and dispersal of supercontinents, Nature, vol.332, pp.695-699, 1988.

U. Haack, On the content and vertical distribution of K, Th, and U in the continental crust, Earth Planet. $ci. Lett, vol.62, pp.360-366, 1983.

G. Hirth and D. L. Kohlstedt, Water in the oceanic upper mantle: Implications for theology, melt extraction and the evolution of the lithosphere, Earth Planet. Sci. Left, vol.44, p.99

P. F. Hoffman, Precambrian geology and tectonic history of North America, The Geology of North America: An Overview, pp.447-512, 1989.

W. S. Holbrook, W. D. Mooney, and N. I. Christensen, The seismic velocity structure of the deep continental crust

R. W. Arculus and . Kay, , pp.1-44, 1992.

C. Jaupart, Horizontal heat transfer due to radioactivity contrasts: Causes and consequences of the linear heat flow-heat production relationship, Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc, vol.75, pp.411-435, 1983.

C. Jaupart and B. Parsons, Convective instabilities in a variable viscosity fluid cooled from above, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter, vol.39, pp.14-32, 1985.

C. Jaupart, J. G. Sclater, and G. Simmons, Heat flow studies: Constraints on the distribution of uranium, thorium and potassium in the continental crust, Earth Planet. Sci. Left, vol.52, pp.328-344, 1981.

C. Jaupart, J. R. Mann, and G. Simmons, A detailed study of the distribution of heat flow and radioactivity in New Hampshire (USA), vol.59, pp.267-287, 1982.

A. M. Jessop, T. J. Lewis, A. S. Judge, A. E. Taylor, and M. J. Drury, Terrestrial heat flow in Canada, Tectonophysics, vol.103, pp.239-261, 1984.

T. H. Jordan, The continental tectosphere, Rev. Geophys, vol.13, pp.1-12, 1975.

T. H. Jordan, Composition and development of the continental tectosphere, Nature, vol.27, pp.544-548, 1978.

T. H. Jordan, Continents as a chemical boundary layer, Trans. R. Soc. London Set. A, vol.301, pp.359-373, 1981.

S. Karato, P. Wu-;-lachenbruch, and A. H. , Crustal temperature and heat production: Implications of the linear heat flow relation, J. Geophys. Res, vol.260, pp.3291-3300, 1970.

A. Lenardic, On the heat flow variations from archean cratons to proterozoic mobile belts, J. Geophys. Res, vol.102, pp.709-721, 1997.

A. Lenardic and W. M. Kaula, Near surface thermal/chemica boundary layer convection at infinite Prandtl number: Two-dimensional numerical experiments, Geophys. J. Int, vol.126, pp.689-711, 1996.

C. R. Lister, Geoid anomalies over cooling lithosphere: Source for a third kernel of upper mantle parameters and thus an inversion, Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc, vol.68, pp.219-240, 1982.

J. Mareschal, C. Pinet, C. Gari?py, C. Jaupart, G. Bienfait et al., New heat flow density and radiogenic heat production data in the Canadian Shield and the Quebec Appalachians, Can. J. Earth Sci, vol.26, pp.845-852, 1989.

J. Mareschal, L. Guillou-frottier, L. Cheng, C. Gari?py, and C. Jaupart, Heat Flow in the Trans-Hudson Orogen, pp.106-114, 1997.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00067832

R. K. Mcconnell, Viscosity of the mantle from relaxation time spectra of isostatic adjustments, J. Geophys. Res, vol.73, pp.349-386, 1968.

D. P. Mckenzie, Some remarks on the movement of small melt fractions in the mantle, Earth Planet. Sci. Left, vol.95, pp.53-72, 1989.

D. P. Mckenzie and M. J. Bickle, Volume and composition of melt generated by extension of the lithosphere, J. Petrol, vol.29, pp.625-679, 1988.

K. Mezger, Temporal evolution of regional granulite terranes: Implications for the formation of the lowermost continental crust, Continental Lower Crust, pp.447-478, 1992.

J. P. Montagner, Can seismology tell us anything about convection in the mantle?, Rev. Geophys, vol.32, pp.115-137, 1994.

P. Morgan, Crustal radiogenic heat production and the selective survival of continental crust, J. Geophys. Res, vol.90, pp.561-570, 1985.

P. Morgan and J. H. Sass, Thermal regime of the continental lithosphere, J. Geodyn, vol.1, pp.143-166, 1984.

M. Nakada, Rheological structure of the Earth's mantle from glacial rebound in Laurentide, J. Phys. Earth, vol.31, pp.349-386, 1983.

E. G. Nisbet, M. J. Cheadle, N. T. Arndt, and M. J. Bickle, Constraining the potential temperature of the Archean mantle: A review of the evidence from komatiites, Lithos, vol.30, pp.291-307, 1993.

A. A. Nyblade and H. N. Pollack, A global analysis of heat flow from Precambrian terrains: Implications for the thermal structure of Archean and Proterozoic lithosphere, J. Geophys. Res, vol.98, pp.12207-12218, 1993.

M. Ogawa, G. Schubert, and A. Zehib, Numerical simulations of three dimensional thermal convection in a fluid with strongly dependent viscosity, J. Fluid Mech, vol.233, pp.299-328, 1991.

R. K. O'nions, N. M. Evensen, and P. J. Hamilton, Geochemical modeling of mantle differentiation and crustal growth, J. Geophys. Res, vol.8, pp.6091-6101, 1979.

R. L. Parker, D. W. Oldenburg, B. Parsons, and D. P. Mckenzie, Mantle convection and the thermal structure of the plates, Nature Phys. Sci, vol.2, issue.2, pp.4485-4495, 1973.

W. R. Peltier, Ice age geodynamics, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci, vol.9, pp.199-225, 1981.

J. Percival, The Kapuskasing transect of LITHO-PROBE, Can. J. Earth Sci, vol.31, pp.1031-1286, 1994.

J. A. Percival, A. G. Green, B. Milkereit, F. A. Cook, W. Geiss et al., Seismic reflection profiles across deep continental crust exposed in the Kapuskasing uplift structure, Nature, issue.2, pp.416-420, 1989.

C. Pinet and C. Jaupart, The vertical distribution of radiogenic heat production in the Precambrian crust of Norway and Sweden: Geothermal implications, Geophys. Res. Left, vol.1, pp.260-263, 1987.

C. Pinet, C. Jaupart, J. Mareschal, C. Gari?py, G. Bienfait et al., Heat flow and structure of the lithosphere in the eastern Canadian Shield, J. Geophys. Res, vol.96, 1991.

H. N. Pollack, Cratonization and thermal evolution of the mantle, Earth Planet. Sci. Left, vol.80, pp.175-182, 1986.

H. N. Pollack and D. S. Chapman, On the regional variation of heat flow, geotherms, and lithospheric thickness, Tectonophysics, vol.38, pp.279-296, 1977.

H. N. Pollack and J. H. Sass, Thermal regime of the lithosphere, Handbook of Terrestrial Heat Flow Density Determination, pp.301-308, 1988.

F. M. Richter, H. C. Natal, and S. F. Daly, Heat transfer and horizontally averaged temperature of convection with large viscosity variations, J. Fluid Mech, vol.129, pp.173-192, 1983.

R. F. Roy, D. D. Blackwell, and F. Birch, Heat generation of plutonic rocks and continental heat flow provinces, Earth Planet. Sci. Left, vol.5, pp.1-12, 1968.

R. F. Roy, A. E. Beck, and Y. S. Touloukian, McGraw-Hill CINDAS data series on material properties, Physical Properties of Rocks and Minerals, vol.2, pp.409-502, 1981.

R. L. Rudnick, Xenoliths: Samples of the lower continental crust, Continental Lower Crust, pp.269-316, 1992.

R. L. Rudnick and D. M. Fountain, Nature and composition of the continental crust: A lower crustal perspective, Rev. Geophys, vol.33, pp.267-309, 1995.

&. Sch and . Rmeli, Identification of radiative thermal conductivity in olivine up to 25 kbar and 1500K, Proceedings of 6th AIRAPT Conference, pp.60-74, 1979.

J. F. Schatz, Simmons, Thermal conductivity of Earth materials, J. Geophys. Res, vol.77, issue.3, pp.6966-6983, 1972.

J. ;. Sclater and J. Francheteau, The implication of terrestrial heat flow observations on current tectonic and geochemical models of the crust and upper mantle of the Earth, Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc, vol.20, issue.3, pp.509-542, 1970.

J. G. Sclater, C. Jaupart, and D. Galson, The heat flow through oceanic and continental crust and the heat loss from the Earth, Rev. Geophys, vol.18, pp.269-311, 1980.

D. M. Shaw, J. J. Cramer, M. D. Higgins, and M. G. Truscott, Composition of the Canadian Precambrian Shield and the continental crust of the Earth, in Nature o) e the Lower Continental Crust, pp.257-282, 1986.

S. B. Smithson and I. B. Ramberg, Its petrological and geothermal significance, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am, vol.90, pp.199-204, 1979.

C. A. Swanberg, M. D. Chessmann, G. Simmons, S. B. Smithson, G. Gronlie et al., Heat flow-heat generation studies in Norway, Tectonophysics, vol.23, pp.31-48, 1974.

S. R. Taylor and S. M. Mclennan, The Continental Crust: Its Composition and Evolution, vol.312, 1985.

S. R. Taylor and S. M. Mclennan, The geochemical evolution of the continental crust, Rev. Geophys, vol.33, pp.241-265, 1995.

D. L. Turcotte and D. C. Mcadoo, J. Geophys. Res, vol.8, pp.2831-2837, 1979.

G. Vasseur and R. N. Singh, The effects of random horizontal variations in the radiogenic heat source distribution and its relationship with heat flow, J. Geophys. Res, vol.91, pp.10397-10404, 1986.

G. J. Wasserburg, G. J. Macdonald, F. Hoyle, and W. A. Fowler, Relative contributions of uranium, thorium and potassium to heat production in the Earth, Science, issue.1?3, pp.465-467, 1964.

K. H. Wedepohl and D. B. White, The planforms and onset of convection with a temperature dependent viscosity, Geol. Rundsch, vol.80, pp.247-286, 1988.

J. Wu and R. F. Mereu, Crustal structure of the Kapuskasing uplift from LITHOPROBE near-vertical wide-angle seismic reflection data, J. Geophys. Res, vol.97, pp.17441-17453, 1992.

S. Zhong and M. Gurnis, Dynamic feedback between a continent-like raft and thermal convection, J. Geophys. Res, vol.98, pp.12219-12232, 1993.

A. Davaille and C. Jaupart, , vol.75252

L. Guillou-frottier, B. Mgg, and B. P. , , vol.6009

C. Guillemin, Orleans Cedex, vol.45060

J. C. , Corresponding author), GEOTOP, Universit? du Quebec ? Montreal, P.O. 8888, sta